Introductory and General Biology
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- Supplemental Modules (Molecular Biology)
- Book: Concepts in Biology (OpenStax)
- 1: Introduction to Biology
- 2: Chemistry of Life
- 3: Cell Structure and Function
- 4: How Cells Obtain Energy
- 5: Photosynthesis
- 6: Reproduction at the Cellular Level
- 7: The Cellular Basis of Inheritance
- 8: Patterns of Inheritance
- 9: Molecular Biology
- 10: Biotechnology
- 11: Evolution and Its Processes
- 12: Diversity of Life
- 13: Diversity of Microbes, Fungi, and Protists
- 14: Diversity of Plants
- 15: Diverstity of Animals
- 16: The Body's Systems
- 17: The Immune System and Disease
- 18: Animal Reproduction and Development
- 19: Population and Community Ecology
- 20: Ecosystems and the Biosphere
- 21: Conservation and Biodiversity
- Book: Introductory Biology (CK-12)
- 1: Introduction to Biology
- 1.18: Enzyme Function
- 1.1: Scientific Investigation
- 1.2: Science Experiments
- 1.3: Scientific Theories
- 1.4: Characteristics of Life
- 1.5: Principles of Biology
- 1.6: Interdependence of Living Things
- 1.7: Organization of Living Things
- 1.8: Evolution of Life
- 1.9: Significance of Carbon
- 1. 10: Carbohydrates
- 1. 11: Lipids
- 1. 12: Proteins
- 1. 13: Nucleic Acids
- 1. 14: Biochemical Reactions
- 1. 15: Energy and Biochemical Reactions
- 1. 16: Types of Biochemical Reactions
- 1. 17: Enzymes
- 1. 19: Water and Life
- 1. 20: Acids and Bases in Biology
- 2: Cell Biology
- 2.13: Osmosis
- 2.1: Common Parts of the Cell
- 2.2: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
- 2.3: Viruses
- 2.4: Phospholipid Bilayers
- 2.5: Membrane Proteins
- 2.6: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeletons
- 2.7: Cell Nucleus
- 2.8: Ribosomes and Mitochondria
- 2.9: Other Cell Organelles
- 2. 10: Plant Cell Structures
- 2. 11: Organization of Cells
- 2. 12: Diffusion
- 2. 14: Facilitated Diffusion
- 2. 15: Active Transport
- 2. 16: Sodium-Potassium Pump
- 2. 17: Exocytosis and Endocytosis
- 2. 18: Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
- 2. 19: Glucose and ATP
- 2. 20: Chloroplasts
- 2. 21: Light Reactions of Photosynthesis
- 2. 22: Calvin Cycle
- 2. 23: Photosynthesis Summary
- 2. 24: Chemosynthesis
- 2. 25: Anaerobic vs Aerobic Respiration
- 2. 26: Cellular Respiration
- 2. 27: Glycolysis
- 2. 28: Krebs Cycle
- 2. 29: Electron Transport
- 2. 30: Fermentation
- 2. 31: Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration
- 2. 32: Cell Division
- 2. 33: Cell Cycle
- 2. 34: Chromosomes
- 2. 35: Mitosis and Cytokinesis
- 2. 36: Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction
- 2. 37: Meiosis
- 2. 38: Gametogenesis
- 2. 39: Genetic Variation
- 2. 40: Reproductive Life Cycles
- 3: Genetics
- 3.1: Mendel's Pea Plants
- 3.2: Mendel's First Set of Experiments
- 3.3: Mendel's Second Set of Experiments
- 3.4: Mendel's Laws and Genetics
- 3.5: Probability and Inheritance
- 3.6: Punnett Squares
- 3.7: Non-Mendelian Inheritance
- 3.8: Human Genome
- 3.9: Human Chromosomes and Genes
- 3. 10: Genetic Linkage
- 3. 11: Mendelian Inheritance in Humans
- 3. 12: Genetic Disorders
- 3. 13: Biotechnology
- 3. 14: Biotechnology Applications
- 3. 15: Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues of Biotechnology
- 4: Molecular Biology
- 4.1: Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
- 4.2: DNA, the Genetic Material
- 4.3: DNA Structure and Replication
- 4.4: RNA
- 4.5: Transcription of DNA to RNA
- 4.6: Genetic Code
- 4.7: Translation of RNA to Protein
- 4.8: Mutation Types
- 4.9: Mutation Causes
- 4. 10: Mutation Effects
- 4. 11: Gene Expression
- 4. 12: Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
- 4. 13: Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
- 5: Evolution
- 5.10: Linnaean Classification
- 5.1: History of Life
- 5.2: How Earth Formed
- 5.3: First Organic Molecules
- 5.4: First Cells
- 5.5: Evolution of Eukaryotes
- 5.6: Late Precambrian Period
- 5.7: Life During the Paleozoic
- 5.8: Mesozoic Era - The Age of Dinosaurs
- 5.9: Cenozoic Era - The Age of Mammals
- 5. 11: Phylogenetic Classification
- 5. 12: Darwin's Voyage of the Beagle
- 5. 13: Influences on Darwin
- 5. 14: Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
- 5. 15: Fossils
- 5. 16: Living Species
- 5. 17: Biogeography
- 5. 18: Population Genetics
- 5. 19: Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
- 5. 20: Forces of Evolution
- 5. 21: Natural Selection
- 5. 22: Origin of Species
- 5. 23: Coevolution
- 5. 24: Macroevolution
- 5. 25: Animal Evolution
- 6: Ecology
- 6.16: Succession
- 6.1: Ecosystems
- 6.2: Flow of Energy
- 6.3: Food Chains and Food Webs
- 6.4: Trophic Levels
- 6.5: Water Cycle
- 6.6: Carbon Cycle
- 6.7: Nitrogen Cycle
- 6.8: Climate Effects on Biomes
- 6.9: Terrestrial Biomes
- 6. 10: Aquatic Biomes
- 6. 11: Freshwater and Wetlands Biomes
- 6. 12: Aquatic Organisms
- 6. 13: Predation
- 6. 14: Competition
- 6. 15: Symbiosis
- 6. 17: Population Size, Density, and Distribution
- 6. 18: Population Structure
- 6. 19: Population Growth
- 6. 20: Population Growth Patterns
- 6. 21: Human Population
- 6. 22: Demographic Transition
- 6. 23: Recent and Future Population Growth
- 6. 24: Biodiversity
- 6. 25: Importance of Biodiversity
- 6. 26: Human Actions and the Sixth Mass Extinction
- 6. 27: Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources
- 6. 28: Soil and Water Resources
- 6. 29: Air Pollution
- 6. 30: Global Climate Change
- 7: Prokaryotes and Viruses
- 7.1: Prokaryote Evolution
- 7.2: Prokaryote Classification
- 7.3: Prokaryote Structure
- 7.4: Prokaryote Metabolism
- 7.5: Prokaryote Habitats
- 7.6: Prokaryote Reproduction
- 7.8: Virus Characteristics
- 7.9: Virus Structures
- 7.10: Virus Classification
- 7.11: Discovery and Origin of Viruses
- 7.12: Virus Replication
- 7.13: Viruses and Human Disease
- 7.14: HIV
- 7.15: Control of Viruses
- 7.16: Viruses in Research and Medicine
- 7.7: Bacteria and Humans
- 8: Protists and Fungi
- 8.1: Protist Kingdom
- 8.2: Protist Evolution
- 8.3: Protist Characteristics
- 8.4: Protozoa
- 8.5: Algae
- 8.6: Molds
- 8.7: Protists and Human Disease
- 8.8: Fungi
- 8.9: Fungi Structure
- 8. 10: How Fungi Eat
- 8. 11: Fungi Reproduction
- 8. 12: Fungi Evolution
- 8. 13: Fungi Classification
- 8. 14: Symbiotic Relationships of Fungi
- 8. 15: Human Uses of Fungi
- 8. 16: Fungi and Human Disease
- 9: Plants
- 9.1: Plant Characteristics
- 9.2: Importance of Plants
- 9.3: Plant Life Cycle Overview
- 9.4: Early Evolution of Plants
- 9.5: Evolution of Seed Plants
- 9.6: Plant Classification
- 9.7: Nonvascular Plants
- 9.8: Vascular Plants
- 9.9: Seed Plants
- 9. 10: Flowering Plants
- 9. 11: Plant Cells
- 9. 12: Plant Tissues
- 9. 13: Plant Growth
- 9. 14: Roots
- 9. 15: Stems
- 9. 16: Leaves
- 9. 17: Photosynthesis
- 9. 18: Plant Life Cycles
- 9. 19: Life Cycle of Nonvascular Plants
- 9. 20: Life Cycle of Seedless Vascular Plants
- 9. 21: Gymnosperm Life Cycle
- 9. 22: Angiosperm Life Cycle
- 9. 23: Plant Adaptations
- 9. 24: Plant Responses
- 10: Animals
- 11: Invertebrates
- 12: Vertebrates
- 12.1: Chordates
- 12.28: Placental Mammals
- 12.2: Vertebrate Characteristics
- 12.33: Evolution of Modern Mammals
- 12.3: Vertebrate Reproduction
- 12.4: Vertebrate Classification
- 12.5: Vertebrate Evolution
- 12.6: Fish Structure and Function
- 12.7: Fish Reproduction and Development
- 12.8: Fish Classification
- 12.9: Fish Evolution and Ecology
- 12. 10: Amphibian Structure and Function
- 12. 11: Amphibian Reproduction and Development
- 12. 12: Amphibian Classification
- 12. 13: Amphibian Evolution and Ecology
- 12. 14: Reptile Structure and Function
- 12. 15: Reptile Reproduction
- 12. 16: Reptile Classification
- 12. 17: Reptile Evolution
- 12. 18: Reptile Ecology
- 12. 19: Bird Structure and Function
- 12. 20: Bird Reproduction
- 12. 21: Bird Classification
- 12. 22: Bird Evolution
- 12. 23: Bird Ecology
- 12. 24: Mammal Characteristics
- 12. 25: Mammal Structure and Function
- 12. 26: Mammal Endothermy
- 12. 27: Mammal Living and Locomotion
- 12. 29: Marsupials
- 12. 30: Monotremes
- 12. 31: Mammal Ancestors
- 12. 32: Evolution of Early Mammals
- 12. 34: Mammal Classification
- 13: Human Biology
- 13.13: Muscle Contraction
- 13.1: Organization of the Human Body
- 13.2: Homeostasis
- 13.39: Small Intestine
- 13.3: Carcinogens and Cancer
- 13.40: Large Intestine
- 13.43: Balanced Eating
- 13.4: Air Pollution and Illness
- 13.5: Bioterrorism
- 13.6: Human Skeletal System
- 13.7: Structure of Bones
- 13.8: Growth and Development of Bones
- 13.9: Skeletal System Joints
- 13. 10: Skeletal System Problems and Diseases
- 13. 11: Smooth, Skeletal, and Cardiac Muscles
- 13. 12: Skeletal Muscles
- 13. 15: Nails and Hair
- 13. 16: Nerve Cells
- 13. 17: Nerve Impulses
- 13. 18: Central Nervous System
- 13. 19: Peripheral Nervous System
- 13. 20: Senses
- 13. 21: Drugs and the Nervous System
- 13. 22: Nervous System Disorders
- 13. 23: Glands
- 13. 24: Hormones
- 13. 25: Hormone Regulation
- 13. 26: Endocrine System Disorders
- 13. 27: Heart
- 13. 28: Blood Vessels
- 13. 29: Circulatory System
- 13. 30: Circulatory System Diseases
- 13. 31: Blood
- 13. 32: Respiration
- 13. 33: Respiratory System Organs
- 13. 34: Processes of Breathing
- 13. 35: Respiratory System Regulation
- 13. 36: Respiratory System Diseases
- 13. 37: Digestive System Organs
- 13. 38: Digestion
- 13. 41: Digestive System Diseases
- 13. 42: Food and Nutrients
- 13. 44: Excretion
- 13. 45: Urinary System
- 13. 46: Kidneys
- 13. 47: Excretory System Diseases
- 13. 48: Barriers to Pathogens
- 13. 49: Inflammatory Response and Leukocytes
- 13. 50: Lymphatic System
- 13. 51: Humoral Immune Response
- 13. 52: Cell-Mediated Immune Response
- 13. 53: Immunity
- 13. 54: Allergies
- 13. 55: Autoimmune Diseases
- 13. 56: Immunodeficiency
- 13. 57: HIV and AIDS
- 13. 58: Male Reproductive Structures
- 13. 59: Male Reproductive Development
- 13. 60: Human Sperm
- 13. 61: Female Reproductive Structures
- 13. 62: Female Reproductive Development
- 13. 63: Human Egg Cells
- 13. 64: Menstrual Cycle
- 13. 65: Fertilization
- 13. 66: Embryo Growth and Development
- 13. 67: Fetus Growth and Development
- 13. 68: Fetal Development and the Placenta
- 13. 69: Pregnancy and Childbirth
- 13. 70: Development from Birth to Adulthood
- 13. 71: Adulthood and Aging
- 13. 72: Sexually Transmitted Infections
- 13. 73: Bacterial Sexually Transmitted
- 13. 74: Viral Sexually Transmitted Infections
- 13: Skin
- 1: Introduction to Biology
- Book: General Biology (OpenStax)
- Unit I: The Chemistry of Life
- Unit II: The Cell
- 4: Cell Structure
- 5: Structure & Function of Plasma Membranes
- 6: Metabolism
- 7: Cellular Respiration
- 7.0: Prelude to Cellular Respiration
- 7.1: Energy in Living Systems
- 7.2: Glycolysis
- 7.3: Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle
- 7.4: Oxidative Phosphorylation
- 7.5: Metabolism without Oxygen
- 7.6: Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways
- 7.7: Regulation of Cellular Respiration
- 7.E: Cellular Respiration (Exercises)
- 8: Photosynthesis
- 9: Cell Communication
- 10: Cell Reproduction
- Unit III: Genetics
- 11: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
- 12: Mendel's Experiments and Heredity
- 13: Modern Understandings of Inheritance
- 14: DNA Structure and Function
- 15: Genes and Proteins
- 16: Gene Expression
- 16.0: Prelude to Gene Expression
- 16.1: Regulation of Gene Expression
- 16.2: Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
- 16.3: Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation
- 16.4: Eukaryotic Transcription Gene Regulation
- 16.5: Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation
- 16.6: Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation
- 16.7: Cancer and Gene Regulation
- 17: Biotechnology and Genomics
- Unit IV: Evolutionary Processes
- Unit V: Biological Diversity
- Unit VI: Plant Structure and Function
- Unit VII: Animal Structure and Function
- 33: The Animal Body - Basic Form and Function
- 34: Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System
- 35: The Nervous System
- 36: Sensory Systems
- 37: The Endocrine System
- 38: The Musculoskeletal System
- 39: The Respiratory System
- 40: The Circulatory System
- 41: Osmotic Regulation and Excretion
- 42: The Immune System
- 43: Animal Reproduction and Development
- 43.0: Prelude to Animal Reproduction and Development
- 43.1: Reproduction Methods
- 43.2: Fertilization
- 43.3: Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis
- 43.4: Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
- 43.5: Human Pregnancy and Birth
- 43.6: Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development
- 43.7: Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation
- 43.E: Animal Reproduction and Development (Exercises)
- Unit VIII: Ecology
- 44: Ecology and the Biosphere
- 45: Population and Community Ecology
- 45.0: Prelude to Population and Community Ecology
- 45.1: Population Demography
- 45.2: Life Histories and Natural Selection
- 45.3: Environmental Limits to Population Growth
- 45.4: Population Dynamics and Regulation
- 45.5: Human Population Growth
- 45.6: Community Ecology
- 45.7: Behavioral Biology - Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior
- 45.E: Population and Community Ecology (Exercises)
- 46: Ecosystems
- 47: Conservation Biology and Biodiversity
- Book: Biofundamentals (Klymkowsky & Cooper)
- 1: Understanding Science & Thinking Scientifically
- 2: Life’s Diversity and Origins
- 2.0: Introduction
- 2.1: What is life, exactly?
- 2.2: The cell theory and the continuity of life
- 2.3: The organization of organisms
- 2.4: Spontaneous generation and the origin of life
- 2.5: The Death of Vitalism
- 2.6: Thinking about life’s origins
- 2.7: Experimental studies on the origins of life
- 2.8: Mapping the history of life on earth
- 2.9: Fossil evidence for the history of life on earth
- 2.10: Life's impact on earth
- 3: Evolutionary Mechanisms and the Diversity of Life
- 3.0: Introduction
- 3.1: Organizing organisms (hierarchically)
- 3.2: Natural and un-natural groups
- 3.3: Fossils and family relationships: introducing cladistics
- 3.4: Evolution theory’s core concepts
- 3.5: So what do we mean by genetic factors?
- 3.6: Limits on populations
- 3.7: The conceptual leap made by Darwin and Wallace
- 3.8: Mutations and the origins of genotype-based variation
- 3.9: The origins of polymorphisms
- 3.10: A short aside on the genotype-phenotype relationship
- 3.11: Variation, selection, and speciation
- 3.12: Types of simple selection
- 3.13: A short note on pedagogical weirdness
- 3.14: Population size, founder effects and population bottlenecks
- 3.15: Population bottlenecks
- 3.16: Genetic drift
- 3.17: Gene linkage: one more complication
- 3.18: A brief reflection on the complexity of phenotypic traits
- 3.19: Speciation and extinction
- 3.20: Mechanisms of speciation
- 3.21: Isolating mechanisms
- 3.22: Sympatric speciation
- 3.23: Signs of evolution: homology and convergence
- 3.24: The loss of traits
- 3.25: Signs of evolutionary history
- 3.26: Homologies provide evidence for a common ancestor
- 3.27: Anti-evolution arguments
- 4: Social Evolution and Sexual Selection
- 4.0: Introduction
- 4.1: Selecting social (cooperative) traits
- 4.2: Quorum Sensing
- 4.3: Active (altruistic) cell death
- 4.4: Inclusive fitness, kin and group selection, and social evolution
- 4.5: Group selection
- 4.6: Defense against social cheaters
- 4.7: Driving the evolutionary appearance of multicellular organisms
- 4.8: Origins and implications of sexual reproduction
- 4.9: Sexual dimorphism
- 4.10: Sexual Selection
- 4.11: Curbing runaway selection
- 5: Molecular Interactions, Thermodynamics & Reaction Coupling
- 5.0: Introduction
- 5.1: A very little thermodynamics
- 5.2: Reactions: favorable, unfavorable, and their dynamics
- 5.3: Thinking entropically (and thermodynamically)
- 5.4: Reaction rates
- 5.5: Coupling Reactions
- 5.6: Molecules, London Dispersion Forces, and van der Waals interactions
- 5.7: Covalent bonds
- 5.8: Bond Stability and Thermal Motion (a non-biological moment)
- 5.9: Bond polarity, inter- and intramolecular interactions
- 5.10: The implications of bond polarity
- 5.11: Interacting with Water
- 6: Membrane Boundaries and Capturing Energy
- 6.0: Introduction
- 6.1: Defining the Cell’s Boundary
- 6.2: The origin of biological membranes
- 6.3: Transport across membranes
- 6.4: Transport to and across the membrane
- 6.5: Channels and carriers
- 6.6: Generating gradients: using coupled reactions and pumps
- 6.7: Simple Phototrophs
- 6.8: Chemo-osmosis (an overview)
- 6.9: Oxygenic Photosynthesis
- 6.10: Chemotrophs
- 6.11: Using the energy stored in membrane gradients
- 6.12: Osmosis and living with and without a cell wall
- 6.13: An evolutionary scenario for the origin of eukaryotic cells
- 6.14: Making a complete eukaryote
- 7: The Molecular Nature of Heredity
- 7.0: Introduction
- 7.1: Discovering how nucleic acids store genetic information
- 7.2: Locating hereditary material within the cell
- 7.3: Identifying DNA as the genetic material
- 7.4: Unraveling Nucleic Acid Structure
- 7.5: Discovering the structure of DNA
- 7.6: DNA, sequences, and information
- 7.7: Discovering RNA: structure and some functions
- 7.8: DNA Replication
- 7.9: Replication machines
- 7.10: Further replication complexities
- 7.11: Mutations, Deletions, Duplications & Repair
- 7.12: Genes and alleles
- 7.13: Mutations and evolution
- 7.14: Triplet repeat diseases and genetic anticipation
- 8: Peptide Bonds, Polypeptides & Proteins
- 8.0: Introduction
- 8.1: Polypeptide and protein structure basics
- 8.2: Amino acid polymers
- 8.3: Making a polypeptide in a bacterial cell
- 8.4: The origin of the genetic code
- 8.5: Protein synthesis: transcription (DNA to RNA)
- 8.6: Protein synthesis: translation (RNA to polypeptide)
- 8.7: The translation (polypeptide synthesis) cycle
- 8.8: Bursting synthesis and alarm generation
- 8.9: Getting more complex: gene regulation in eukaryotes
- 8.10: Turning polypeptides into proteins
- 8.11: Regulating protein localization
- 8.12: Regulating protein activity
- 8.13: Allosteric regulation
- 8.14: Post-translational regulation
- 8.15: Diseases of folding and misfolding
- 8.16: Why do harmful alleles persist?
- 9: Genomes, Genes & Regulatory networks
- 9.0: Introduction
- 9.10: Paralogous genes and gene families
- 9.11: Packing DNA into a cell
- 9.12: Locating information within DNA
- 9.13: Network interactions
- 9.14: E. coli as a model system
- 9.15: Final thoughts on (molecular) noise
- 9.16: Types of regulatory interactions
- 9.1: Genomes and their organization
- 9.2: A Technical Aside - Transposons
- 9.3: Genes along chromosomes
- 9.4: Naturally occurring horizontal gene transfer mechanisms
- 9.5: Transformation
- 9.6: Conjugation
- 9.7: Transduction
- 9.8: Sexual reproduction
- 9.9: Genome dynamics
- 10: Social Systems
- Book: Biology (Kimball)
- Unit 1: The Chemical Basis of Life
- Unit 2: The Molecules of Life
- Unit 3: The Cellular Basis of Life
- 3.1: Animal Cells
- 3.2: Cell Membranes
- 3.3: The Nucleus
- 3.4: Ribosomes
- 3.5: Endoplasmic Reticulum
- 3.6: Golgi Apparatus
- 3.7: Centrosomes and Centrioles
- 3.8: Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
- 3.9: Protein Kinesis
- 3.10: The Proteasome
- 3.11: The Cytoskeleton
- 3.12: Cilia
- 3.13: Animal Tissues
- 3.14: Adipose Tissue
- 3.15: Junctions between Cells
- 3.16: Plant Cells
- 3.17: Chloroplasts
- 3.18: Chlorophylls and Carotenoids
- 3.19: Plant Tissues
- 3.20: Apoptosis
- 3.21: Collagens
- 3.22: Chromatophores
- 3.23: Diffusion, Active Transport and Membrane Channels
- 3.24: Endocytosis
- 3.25: Exocytosis
- Unit 4: Cell Metabolism
- 4.1: Enzymes
- 4.2: ATP
- 4.3: NAD and NADP
- 4.4: Glycolysis
- 4.5: Cellular Respiration
- 4.6: ATP Synthase
- 4.7: Photosynthesis - Pathway of Carbon Fixation
- 4.8: Photosynthesis - The Role of Light
- 4.9: Photosynthesis - Dicovering the Secrets
- 4.10: Chemiosmosis
- 4.11: Metabolism
- 4.12: Intermediary Metabolism
- 4.13: G Proteins
- 4.14: Secondary Messengers
- 4.15: Bioluminescence
- Unit 5: DNA
- 5.1: Transformation in Bacteria
- 5.2: The Hershey - Chase Experiments
- 5.3: The Double Helix of DNA
- 5.4: Base Pairing in DNA and RNA
- 5.5: DNA Replication
- 5.6: The Meselson - Stahl Experiment
- 5.7: Restriction Enzymes
- 5.8: DNA Sequencing by the Dideoxy Method
- 5.9: Genome Sizes
- 5.10: The Human Genome Projects
- 5.11: The Human and Chimpanzee Genomes
- 5.12: Pyrosequencing
- 5.13: DNA Repair
- 5.14: Harlequin Chromosomes
- 5.15: Metagenomics - Exploring the Microbial World
- Unit 6: Gene Expression
- Unit 7: Cell Division
- Unit 8: The Genetic Consequences of Meiosis
- Unit 9: Regulation of Gene Expression
- 9.1: Regulation of Gene Expression in Bacteria
- 9.2: The Tryptophan Repressor
- 9.3: Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes
- 9.4: Steroid Response Elements
- 9.5: Epigenetics
- 9.6: Visualization of Transcription and Translation in Bacteria
- 9.7: Footprinting
- 9.8: Chromatin Immunoprecipitation
- 9.9: Isolating Transcription Factors
- 9.10: Palindromes
- 9.11: Cell-specific gene expression
- 9.12: Imprinted Genes
- 9.13: Ribozymes
- Unit 10: Mutation
- Unit 11: Genomics
- 11.1: Recombinant DNA and Gene Cloning
- 11.2: Polymerase Chain Reaction
- 11.3.1: Gene Therapy - Methods and Prospects
- 11.3.2: Recent Advances in Gene Therapy
- 11.4: Transgenic Animals
- 11.5: Transgenic Plants
- 11.6: Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms
- 11.7: Gel Blotting
- 11.8: Genetic Screening for Phenylketonuria
- 11.9: Antisense RNA
- 11.10: Antisense Oligodeoxynucleotides and their Therapeutic Potential
- 11.11: Forward and Reverse genetics
- 11.12: Metagenomics
- Unit 12: Cancer
- 12.1: Cancer in General
- 12.2: Cancer Cells in Culture
- 12.3: Oncogenes
- 12.4: Tumor Suppressor Genes
- 12.5: BCL-2
- 12.6: Burkitt's Lymphoma
- 12.7: Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)
- 12.8: Fighting Cancer with Inhibitors of Angiogenesis
- 12.9: Immunotherapy of cancer
- 12.10: Cancer: The Causes and Prevention of Cancer
- 12.11: Estimating Cancer Risks
- 12.12: The LD50 test
- 12.13: Dioxin
- 12.14: Magnetic fields
- Unit 13: Aging
- Unit 14: Embryonic Development and its Regulation
- Unit 15: The Anatomy & Physiology of Animals
- 15.1: Nutrition
- 15.2: Gas Exchange
- 15.3: Circulatory Systems
- 15.4: Immune System
- 15.4G: Anatomy of the Immune System
- 15.4K: Organ Transplants
- 15.4O: Dendritic Cells
- 15.4A: Clonal Selection and Immunological Memory
- 15.4B: Antibody-Antigen Binding
- 15.4C: B Cells and T Cells
- 15.4D: Antigen Receptors
- 15.4E: Histocompatibility Molecules
- 15.4F: Antigen Receptor Diversity
- 15.4H: T Helper cells
- 15.4I: Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)
- 15.4J: Cell-Mediated Immunity
- 15.4L: Bone Marrow Transplants
- 15.4M: Antigen Presentation
- 15.4N: The Immunological Synapse
- 15.4P: Passive Immunity
- 15.4Q: Innate Immunity
- 15.4R: The Complement System
- 15.4S: Inflammation
- 15.4T Allergies
- 15.4U: Asthma
- 15.4V: AIDS
- 15.4W: Vaccines
- 15.5: Excretion
- 15.6: Hormones
- 15.6.1: Human Hormones
- 15.6.1.1: Thyroid and Parathyroids
- 15.6.1.2: Hormones of the Gut
- 15.6.1.3: Hormones of the Pancreas
- 15.6.1.4: Hormones of the Pituitary
- 15.6.1.5: Hormones of the Hypothalamus
- 15.6.1.6: Adrenal Glands
- 15.6.1.7: Sex Hormones
- 15.6.1.8: Progesterone
- 15.6.1.9: Melatonin and the Pineal Gland
- 15.6.1.10: Hormones of Kidney, Skin and Heart
- 15.6.1.11: Leptin - the Fat Hormone
- 15.6.1.12: Hormones of the Liver
- 15.6.1.13: Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
- 15.6.2: Insect Hormones
- 15.6.1: Human Hormones
- 15.7: Sexual Reproduction
- 15.8: Nervous System
- 15.9: Senses
- 15.10: Muscles
- 15.11: Behavior
- Unit 16: The Anatomy and Physiology of Plants
- Unit 17: Ecology
- Unit 18: Evolution
- Unit 19: The Diversity of Life
- 19.1: Eukaryotic Life
- 19.1.1: Taxonomy
- 19.1.2: Protists
- 19.1.3: Ciliates
- 19.1.4: Volvox
- 19.1.5: Diversity and Evolutionary Relationships of the Plants
- 19.1.6: Arabidopsis Thaliana - A Model Organism
- 19.1.7: Fungi
- 19.1.8: Yeast
- 19.1.9: Barcoding
- 19.1.10: Invertebrates
- 19.1.11: Drosophila Melanogaster
- 19.1.12: Caenorhabditis Elegans
- 19.1.13: Vertebrates
- 19.1.14: Zebrafish
- 19.1.15: Monotremes
- 19.2: Microbes
- 19.3: Viruses
- 19.1: Eukaryotic Life
- Unit 20: General Science
- Book: General Biology (Boundless)
- 1: The Study of Life
- 2: The Chemical Foundation of Life
- 2.1: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules
- 2.1A: Overview of Atomic Structure
- 2.1B: Atomic Number and Mass Number
- 2.1C: Isotopes
- 2.1D: The Periodic Table
- 2.1E: Electron Shells and the Bohr Model
- 2.1F: Electron Orbitals
- 2.1G: Chemical Reactions and Molecules
- 2.1H: Ions and Ionic Bonds
- 2.1I: Covalent Bonds and Other Bonds and Interactions
- 2.1J: Hydrogen Bonding and Van der Waals Forces
- 2.2: Water
- 2.3: Carbon
- 2.4: Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
- 2.1: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules
- 3: Biological Macromolecules
- 4: Cell Structure
- 5: Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes
- 6: Metabolism
- 7: Cellular Respiration
- 8: Photosynthesis
- 9: Cell Communication
- 10: Cell Reproduction
- 11: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
- 12: Mendel's Experiments and Heredity
- 13: Modern Understandings of Inheritance
- 14: DNA Structure and Function
- 15: Genes and Proteins
- 16: Gene Expression
- 17: Biotechnology and Genomics
- 17.1: Biotechnology
- 17.1A: Biotechnology
- 17.1B: Basic Techniques to Manipulate Genetic Material (DNA and RNA)
- 17.1C: Molecular and Cellular Cloning
- 17.1D: Reproductive Cloning
- 17.1E: Genetic Engineering
- 17.1F: Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
- 17.1G: Biotechnology in Medicine
- 17.1H: Production of Vaccines, Antibiotics, and Hormones
- 17.2: Mapping Genomes
- 17.3: Whole-Genome Sequencing
- 17.4: Applying Genomics
- 17.5: Genomics and Proteomics
- 17.1: Biotechnology
- 18: Evolution and the Origin of Species
- 18.1: Understanding Evolution
- 18.2: Formation of New Species
- 18.3: Hybrid Zones and Rates of Speciation
- 18.4: Evolution of Genomes
- 18.5: Evidence of Evolution
- 18.5A: The Fossil Record as Evidence for Evolution
- 18.5B: Fossil Formation
- 18.5C: Gaps in the Fossil Record
- 18.5D: Carbon Dating and Estimating Fossil Age
- 18.5E: The Fossil Record and the Evolution of the Modern Horse
- 18.5F: Homologous Structures
- 18.5G: Convergent Evolution
- 18.5H: Vestigial Structures
- 18.5I: Biogeography and the Distribution of Species
- 19: The Evolution of Populations
- 20: Phylogenies and the History of Life
- 21: Viruses
- 22: Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea
- 23: Protists
- 24: Fungi
- 25: Seedless Plants
- 26: Seed Plants
- 27: Introduction to Animal Diversity
- 28: Invertebrates
- 29: Vertebrates
- 30: Plant Form and Physiology
- 31: Soil and Plant Nutrition
- 32: Plant Reproductive Development and Structure
- 33: The Animal Body: Basic Form and Function
- 34: Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System
- 35: The Nervous System
- 36: Sensory Systems
- 37: The Endocrine System
- 38: The Musculoskeletal System
- 39: The Respiratory System
- 40: The Circulatory System
- 41: Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System
- 42: The Immune System
- 43: Animal Reproduction and Development
- 44: Ecology and the Biosphere
- 45: Population and Community Ecology
- 46: Ecosystems
- 47: Conservation Biology and Biodiversity