2: The Chemical Foundation of Life
- Page ID
- 12460
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)- 2.1: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules - Overview of Atomic Structure
- Atoms are made up of particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons, which are responsible for the mass and charge of atoms.
- 2.2: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules - Atomic Number and Mass Number
- The atomic number is the number of protons in an element, while the mass number is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons.
- 2.3: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules - Isotopes
- Isotopes are various forms of an element that have the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons.
- 2.4: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules - The Periodic Table
- Everything in the universe is made of one or more elements. The periodic table is a means of organizing the various elements according to similar physical and chemical properties.
- 2.5: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules - Electron Shells and the Bohr Model
- Niels Bohr proposed an early model of the atom as a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons being orbited by electrons in shells.
- 2.6: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules - Electron Orbitals
- Electron orbitals are three-dimensional representations of the space in which an electron is likely to be found.
- 2.7: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules - Chemical Reactions and Molecules
- Chemical reactions occur when two or more atoms bond together to form molecules or when bonded atoms are broken apart.
- 2.8: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules - Ions and Ionic Bonds
- Ionic bonds are attractions between oppositely charged atoms or groups of atoms where electrons are donated and accepted.
- 2.9: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules - Covalent Bonds and Other Bonds and Interactions
- Covalent bonds result from a sharing of electrons between two atoms and hold most biomolecules together.
- 2.10: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules - Hydrogen Bonding and Van der Waals Forces
- Hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions are two types of weak bonds that are necessary to the basic building blocks of life.
- 2.11: Water - Water’s Polarity
- Water’s polarity is responsible for many of its properties including its attractiveness to other molecules.
- 2.12: Water - Gas, Liquid, and Solid Water
- The orientation of hydrogen bonds as water changes states dictates the properties of water in its gaseous, liquid, and solid forms.
- 2.13: Water - Heat of Vaporization
- Evaporation of water requires a substantial amount of energy due to the high heat of vaporization of water.
- 2.14: Water - High Heat Capacity
- Water is able to absorb a high amount of heat before increasing in temperature, allowing humans to maintain body temperature.
- 2.15: Water - Water’s Solvent Properties
- Water’s polarity makes it an excellent solvent for other polar molecules and ions.
- 2.16: Water - Cohesive and Adhesive Properties
- Cohesion allows substances to withstand rupture when placed under stress while adhesion is the attraction between water and other molecules.
- 2.17: Water - pH, Buffers, Acids, and Bases
- Acids dissociate into H+ and lower pH, while bases dissociate into OH– and raise pH; buffers can absorb these excess ions to maintain pH.
- 2.18: Carbon - The Chemical Basis for Life
- Carbon is the most important element to living things because it can form many different kinds of bonds and form essential compounds.
- 2.19: Carbon - Hydrocarbons
- Hydrocarbons are important molecules that can form chains and rings due to the bonding patterns of carbon atoms.
- 2.20: Carbon - Organic Isomers
- Isomers are molecules with the same chemical formula but have different structures, which creates different properties in the molecules.
- 2.21: Carbon - Organic Enantiomers
- Enantiomers share the same chemical structure and bonds but differ in the placement of atoms such that they are mirror images of each other.
- 2.22: Carbon - Organic Molecules and Functional Groups
- Functional groups are groups of molecules attached to organic molecules and give them specific identities or functions.
- 2.23: Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules - Types of Biological Macromolecules
- Biological macromolecules, the large molecules necessary for life, include carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
- 2.24: Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules - Dehydration Synthesis
- In dehydration synthesis, monomers combine with each other via covalent bonds to form polymers.
- 2.25: Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules - Hydrolysis
- Hydrolysis reactions result in the breakdown of polymers into monomers by using a water molecule and an enzymatic catalyst.