7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis
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- 16757
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)The family photo in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) illustrates an important point. Children in a family resemble their parents and each other, but the children are never exactly the same unless they are identical twins. Each of the children in the photo inherited a unique combination of traits from the parents. In this concept, you will learn how this happens. It all begins with sex — sexual reproduction, that is.
Sexual Reproduction
Why do you look similar to your parents, but not identical? First, it is because you have two parents. Second, it is because of sexual reproduction. Whereas asexual reproduction produces genetically identical clones, sexual reproduction produces genetically diverse individuals. Sexual reproduction is the creation of a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms. As both parents contribute half of the new organism’s genetic material, the offspring will have traits of both parents, but will not be exactly like either parent.
Organisms that reproduce sexually by joining gametes, a process known as fertilization, must have a mechanism to produce haploid gametes. This mechanism is meiosis, a type of cell division that halves the number of chromosomes. During meiosis, the pairs of chromosomes separate and segregate randomly to produce gametes with one chromosome from each pair. Meiosis involves two nuclear and cell divisions without interphase in between, starting with one diploid cell and generating four haploid cells. Each division, named meiosis I and meiosis II, has four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. These stages are similar to those of mitosis, but there are distinct and important differences.
Prior to meiosis, the cell’s DNA is replicated, generating chromosomes with two sister chromatids. A human cell prior to meiosis will have 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs of homologous autosomes, and 1 pair of sex chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)), or homologs, are similar in size, shape, and genetic content; they contain the same genes, though they may have different alleles of those genes. The genes/alleles are at the same loci on homologous chromosomes. You inherit one chromosome of each pair of homologs from your mother and the other one from your father. Sexual reproduction is the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of multicellular organisms, including almost all animals and plants. Fertilization joins two haploid gametes into a diploid zygote, the first cell of a new organism. The zygote enters G1 of the first cell cycle, and the organism begins to grow and develop through mitosis and cell division.
Meiosis
The process that produces haploid gametes is called meiosis. Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by half. It occurs only in certain special cells of an organism. In mammals, Meiosis occurs only in gamete producing cells within the gonads. During meiosis, homologous (paired) chromosomes separate, and haploid cells form that have only one chromosome from each pair. Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) gives an overview of meiosis.
As you can see from the meiosis diagram, two cell divisions occur during the overall process, so a total of four haploid cells are produced. The two cell divisions are called meiosis I and meiosis II. Meiosis I begins after DNA replicates during interphase. Meiosis II follows meiosis I without DNA replicating again. Both meiosis I and meiosis II occur in four phases, called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. You may recognize these four phases from mitosis, the division of the nucleus that takes place during routine cell division of eukaryotic cells.
Meiosis I
- Prophase I: The nuclear envelope begins to break down, and the chromosomes condense. Centrioles start moving to opposite poles of the cell, and a spindle begins to form. Importantly, homologous chromosomes pair up, which is unique to prophase I. In prophase of mitosis and meiosis II, homologous chromosomes do not form pairs in this way. During prophase I, crossing-over occurs. The significance of crossing-over is discussed in the next section called variations.
- Metaphase I: Spindle fibers attach to the paired homologous chromosomes. The paired chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell. This occurs only in metaphase I. In metaphase of mitosis and meiosis II, it is sister chromatids that line up along the equator of the cell.
- Anaphase I: Spindle fibers shorten, and the chromosomes of each homologous pair start to separate from each other. One chromosome of each pair moves toward one pole of the cell, and the other chromosome moves toward the opposite pole.
- Telophase I and Cytokinesis: The spindle breaks down, and new nuclear membranes form. The cytoplasm of the cell divides, and two haploid daughter cells result. The daughter cells each have a random assortment of chromosomes, with one from each homologous pair. Both daughter cells go on to meiosis II.
Meiosis II
- Prophase II: The nuclear envelope breaks down and the spindle begins to form in each haploid daughter cell from meiosis I. The centrioles also start to separate.
- Metaphase II: Spindle fibers line up the sister chromatids of each chromosome along the equator of the cell.
- Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
- Telophase II and Cytokinesis: The spindle breaks down, and new nuclear membranes form. The cytoplasm of each cell divides, and four haploid cells result. Each cell has a unique combination of chromosomes.
Gametogenesis
At the end of meiosis, four haploid cells have been produced, but the cells are not yet gametes. The cells need to develop before they become mature gametes capable of fertilization. The development of diploid cells into gametes is called gametogenesis. It differs between males and females.
- A gamete produced by a male is called a sperm, and the process that produces a mature sperm is called spermatogenesis. During this process, a sperm cell grows a tail and gains the ability to “swim,” like the human sperm cell shown in the figure below.
- A gamete produced by a female is called an egg, and the process that produces a mature egg is called oogenesis. Just one egg is produced from the four haploid cells that result from meiosis. The single egg is a very large cell, as you can see from the human egg also shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\).
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis occurs in the wall of the seminiferous tubules, with stem cells at the periphery of the tube and the spermatozoa at the lumen of the tube. Immediately under the capsule of the tubule are diploid, undifferentiated cells. These stem cells, called spermatogonia (singular: spermatagonium), go through mitosis with one offspring going on to differentiate into a sperm cell, while the other gives rise to the next generation of sperm.
Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): Spermatogenesis During spermatogenesis, four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte, which divides into two haploid secondary spermatocytes; these cells will go through a second meiotic division to produce four spermatids.
Meiosis begins with a cell called a primary spermatocyte. At the end of the first meiotic division, a haploid cell is produced called a secondary spermatocyte. This haploid cell must go through another meiotic cell division. The cell produced at the end of meiosis is called a spermatid. When it reaches the lumen of the tubule and grows a flagellum (or "tail"), it is called a sperm cell. Four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte that goes through meiosis.
Stem cells are deposited during gestation and are present at birth through the beginning of adolescence but in an inactive state. During adolescence, gonadotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary cause the activation of these cells and the production of viable sperm. This continues into old age.
Oogenesis
Oogenesis occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries. As with sperm production, oogenesis starts with a germ cell, called an oogonium (plural: oogonia), but this cell undergoes mitosis to increase in number, eventually resulting in up to one to two million cells in the embryo.
The cell starting meiosis is called a primary oocyte. This cell will begin the first meiotic division, but be arrested in its progress in the first prophase stage. At the time of birth, all future eggs are in the prophase stage. At adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones cause the development of a number of follicles in an ovary. This results in the primary oocyte finishing the first meiotic division. The cell divides unequally, with most of the cellular material and organelles going to one cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only one set of chromosomes and a small amount of cytoplasm going to the other cell. This second cell is called a polar body and usually dies. A secondary meiotic arrest occurs, this time at the metaphase II stage. At ovulation, this secondary oocyte will be released and travel toward the uterus through the oviduct. If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, the cell continues through the meiosis II, completing meiosis, producing a second polar body and a fertilized egg containing all 46 chromosomes of a human being, half of them coming from the sperm.
Review
- Explain how sexual reproduction occurs at the cellular level.
- Summarize what happens during meiosis.
- Compare and contrast gametogenesis in males and females.
- Explain mechanisms that increase genetic variation in offspring produced by sexual reproduction.
- Why do gametes need to be haploid? What would happen to the chromosome number after fertilization if they were diploid?
- Describe one difference between prophase I of meiosis and prophase of mitosis.
- Do all of the chromosomes that you got from your mother go into one of your gametes? Why or why not?
- True or False. Crossing-over is the exchange of genetic material between sister chromatids.
- True or False. Human sperms are haploid.
- True or False. Sister chromatids separate from each other during meiosis I.
- How many cells are produced after a single cell goes through meiosis?
- Which stage of meiosis (prophase I or II; metaphase I or II; anaphase I or II; telophase I or II) best fits the descriptions below? Choose only one for each description.
- Pairs of homologous chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell
- Sister chromatids separate
- Homologous chromosomes separate from each other
Explore More
A special type of cell division known as meiosis is responsible for your uniqueness. Learn more here:
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Attributions
- Family Photo by @donita, released into the public domain via Nappy
- Chromosomal crossing over by Abbyprovenzano, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
- Major events in meiosos by NCBI, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
- Meiosis by OpenStax, CC BY 4.0
- Sperm egg, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
- Spermatogenesis by OpenStax, CC BY 4.0
- Oogenesis by OpenStax, CC BY 4.0
- Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0