1.2: Applications of Biotechnology
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Cell therapy is an exciting and emerging field in biotechnology. CAR-T (Chimeric antigen receptor-T) cell therapy is a type of immunotherapy treatment that uses a patient's T cells to attack cancer cells. Cells from the patients are collected, genetically modified to recognize cancer cells and reintroduced into the patient. Emily Whitehead was the first patient to receive CAR-T cell therapy as a clinical trial in 2012 in an attempt to cure her leukemia. She is now cancer free and has lived a normal life since then. To read more about CAR-T cell therapy, see Chapter 10.1: Uses of Medical Biotechnology.
The video below shows Emma's journey and how this type of therapy has since been used to save other patient's lives.
New Cancer Cure: Immunotherapy
Introduction
The rapid evolution of techniques used in biotechnology has enabled researchers to sequence segments of DNA or entire genomes in record time; to analyze specific DNA and protein sequences; to enhance microbial and eukaryotic cell culture methods; to engineer enzymes with novel or improved characteristics; to add, delete, or edit specific genes to produce desired traits in organisms. These techniques provide extensive opportunities for various applications in biotechnology, including designing new drugs, the improvement of animal and plant specific, the production of renewable energy, and protecting the environment.
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- describe how biotechnology is used in different areas
Biotechnology in Medicine
Biotechnology offers new ways to diagnose, treat, and prevent diseases. It enables the creation of advanced tools for disease detection and monitoring, such as PCR tests and biosensors like the glucose monitor (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Innovations in genetic engineering and bio-processing have led to the development of new pharmaceutical products that target diseases at their molecular roots, and improvements of existing ones, such as monoclonal antibodies, vaccines, and gene therapy. Progress in regenerative medicine allows for the regeneration of damaged tissues and organs through the use of stem cells and tissue engineering. Biotechnology also plays a critical role in vaccine development, as seen with the rapid creation of COVID-19 vaccines using mRNA technology. For more about biotechnology in medicine, go to Chapter 10: Medical Biotechnology.
Biotechnology in Animals
Genetic engineering allows for the creation of genetically-modified (i.e., transgenic) animals with enhanced growth rates, improved disease resistance, increased milk or meat production. The development of such genetically-modified animals reduces the need for antibiotics and enhances their welfare. Cloning and reproductive technologies, such as in vitro fertilization and somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) has helped preserve endangered species and improve breeding programs for livestock (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). The Frozen Zoo at the San Diego Zoo has been collecting and preserving living cell lines, gametes, and embryos since 1975 making it the largest repository of its kind. Such collections provide invaluable resources for conservation, research, and potential future restoration of endangered or extinct species. For more about the application of biotechnology to animals, go to Chapter 8: Animal Biotechnology.
Biotechnology in Agriculture
Agriculture has greatly benefited from advances in biotechnology, such as the creation of genetically-modified organisms (GMOs). GMOs like genetically-modified crops has led to the development of crops with desired traits. For example, crops engineered to be resistant to pests or herbicides reduce the need for chemical pesticides and herbicides, lowering environmental and health risks. Additionally, the production of bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides, which use natural organisms to enhance soil fertility and control pests, can increase crop yields and prevent runoff into water bodies. Crops with enhanced nutritional content, such as "golden rice", a rice genetically engineered to produce beta-carotene (a precursor of vitamin A), address nutrient deficiencies in regions where such shortages are prevalent (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). Crops can also be genetically modified to withstand harsh environmental conditions; for instance, drought-resistant and pest-resistant maize varieties are being tested in Ethiopia, and efforts are underway to create genetically-modified indigenous plants with enhanced traits. For more about how biotechnology is used in plants and in agriculture, go to Chapter 9: Agriculture Biotechnology.
Biotechnology in Industry and Manufacturing
Industrial biotechnology facilitates the creation of various products, such as biofuels, food and feed ingredients, detergents, and textiles. A significant benefit of industrial biotechnology is its reduced environmental impact. For instance, renewable resources like food waste, animal manure, and algae are now being utilized to produce biofuels, while sugarcane and corn starch are being used to make biodegradable bio-plastics. Bioengineering of enzymes are now modifying existing enzymes or developing new ones with enhanced properties for use in laundry detergents, paper production, and food processing. For example, engineered microbial lipase is employed in numerous applications. Lipases are enzymes that break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol, and are important biocatalysts for biotechnology. Microbial lipases are inexpensive to produce, stable and easy to genetically manipulate. As such they are manufactured to be included as additives in the detergent industry, flavor and aroma enhancers in the food industry, replacements for artificial chemicals in cosmetics, and in paper production and leather tanning (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). For more about industrial biotechnology, go to Chapter 11. Industrial Biotechnology.
Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Microbial lipase uses. Lipases can be made by bacteria for use the leather, textile, paper, and food industries, in addition to being used in detergents, waste treatment, cosmetics, and biofuels. (Microbial Lipase Uses by Kareen Martin; CC BY 4.0)
Biotechnology and the Environment
The previous sections presented some examples on how biotechnology can benefit the environment: pest resistant plants limit the release of pesticides, or the creation of biofuels reduces greenhouse gases emissions. Bioremediation uses biotechnology to clean up polluted areas. Microbes have been genetically engineered to biodegrade contaminants such as oil spills and heavy metals. Biotechnology also provides new technologies to improve waste management, such as microbial digestion and composting, which promote the recycling of organic waste into useful products like compost and bioenergy. Biotechnological innovations in embryo preservation help conserve biodiversity and protect endangered animal and plant species as already mentioned in the section animal biotechnology. Go to Chapter 12: Environmental Biotechnology to read more about how biotechnology is used to protect the environment.
Biotechnology in Biodefense
Biotechnology also plays a crucial role in the bio-defense sector in numerous ways. Rapid advances in biotechnology bring the alarming potential for developing biological weapons used in bioterrorism. Perhaps the best example is the bacteria, Bacillus anthracis. Bacillus anthracis produces reproductive spores that float in the air and can be inhaled. In 2001, powdered anthrax spores were sent through the mail in a series of attacks that killed five people and infected 17 others (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).
Such examples make it essential to develop countermeasures against such threats. Biotechnology has been at the leading edge of developing these countermeasures. For example, biotechnology has enabled the creation of multiple vaccines, antibiotics, and anti-viral compounds that protect society against biological agents used in bioterrorism. Finally, the emergence of new biotechnologies is providing governments with critical tools for bio-surveillance and early warning of infectious disease events, microbial forensics, decontamination of materials, and risk and threat assessment.
Biotechnology is the use of biological agents for technological advancement. Some important concepts to remember are:
- Biotechnology can be applied to medicine (e.g. vaccine and antibiotic production), industry (e.g. biofuels, feed, textiles), and agriculture (e.g. crop genetic modification in order to increase yields)
- Genetic engineering allows for the creation of transgenic animals with enhanced growth rates, improved disease resistance, increased milk or meat production
- Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) technologies help protect endangered animals and improve breeding programs
- Genetically-modified crops are used in agriculture to produce crops with desired traits like resistance to drought, disease, pests, and herbicides, in addition to enhanced nutritional content
- Industrial biotechnology facilitates the creation of various products, such as biofuels, food and feed ingredients, detergents, and textiles.
- Industrial bioengineering of enzymes can modify existing enzymes or develop new ones with enhanced properties for use in industries like detergents, paper production, and food processing
- Bioremediation uses biotechnology to clean up polluted areas
Glossary
Bioengineering - the application of principles from biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, and engineering to solve problems in biology and medicine; also known as biomedical engineering
Bioremediation - a process that uses microorganisms to clean up contaminated soil, water, and other environments
Biosurveillance - a public health practice that involves the continuous monitoring and detection of biological threats, such as infectious diseases, bioterrorism agents, and emerging pathogens
Bioterrorism - the intentional use of microorganisms to bring about ill effects or death to humans, livestock, or crops
Enucleate - a cell lacking a nucleus
Genetically-modified crop - a crop whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering techniques to introduce traits like pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, or improved nutritional content
Genetically-modified organism - any organism whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering techniques
In vitro Fertilization - a type of assisted reproductive technology (ART) where sperm and an egg are fertilized outside of the human body
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) - a laboratory technique that creates an embryo from the nucleus of a body cell and the cytoplasm of a enucleate egg; also known as therapeutic cloning
Transgenic organism - an alternate term for a GMO; often used to refer to a genetically-modified animal