Search

Text Color

Margin Size

Font Type

Enable Dyslexic Font

Gluconeogenesis

Last updated

Jun 3, 2019
Save as PDF
- Synthesis
- Glycolysis

$\newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} }$

$\newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}}$

$\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}$ $\newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}$

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) $\newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}$

$\newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}$ $\newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}$

$\newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}$ $\newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}$

$\newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}$

$\newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}$

$\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}$

$\newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}$

$\newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}$

$\newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}$

$\newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}$

$\newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}$

$\newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}$

$\newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}$

$\newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}$

$\newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}$ $\newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}$

$\newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}} % arrow$

$\newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}} % arrow$

$\newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} }$

$\newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}}$

$\newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}}$

$\newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}}$

$\newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}}$

$\newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} }$

$\newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}}$

$\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}$

$\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}$

$\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}$

$\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}$

$\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}$

$\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}$

$\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}$

$\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}$

$\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}$

$\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}$

$\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}$

$\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}$

$\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}$

$\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}$

$\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}$

$\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}$

$\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}$

$\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}$

$\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}$

$\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}$

$\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}$

$\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}$

$\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}$

$\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}$

$\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}$

$\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}$

$\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}$

$\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}$

$\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}$

$\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}$

$\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}$

$\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}$

$\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}$

$\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}$

$\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}$

$\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}$

$\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}$

$\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}$

$\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}$

$\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}$

$\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}$

$\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}$

$\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}$

$\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}$

$\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}$

$\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}$

$\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}$

$\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}$

$\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}$

$\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}$

$\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}$

$\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}$

$\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}$

$\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}$

$\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}$

$\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}$

$\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}$

$\newcommand{\lt}{<}$

$\newcommand{\gt}{>}$

$\newcommand{\amp}{&}$

$\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}$

In the Mitochondria
In the Cytoplasm
In the Endoplasmic Reticulum
Regulation
Glyoxylate Cycle
Starch/Glycogen Synthesis
Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)

Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose. It is basically glycolysis run backwards; three new reactions (involving four new enzymes) make the standard free energy favorable.

Glycolysis: $\Delta{G}_o’ = -74 \, \text{kcal/mol}$
Gluconeogenesis: $\Delta{G}_o' = -36 \, \text{kcal/mol}$

For every molecule of glucose synthesized from two molecules of pyruvate, 4 ATP, 2 GTP, and 2 NADH are used.

In the Mitochondria

Pyruvate + ATP $\rightarrow$ Oxaloacetate + ADP + P

Oxaloacetate + NADH $\rightarrow$ Malate + NAD⁺

The conversion to malate allows the molecule to be transported out of the mitochondria. Once in the cytoplasm, it is converted back to oxaloacetate.

In the Cytoplasm

Malate + NAD⁺ $\rightarrow$ Oxaloacetate + NADH

Oxaloacetate + GTP $\rightarrow$ PEP + GDP

From here, it goes through the same intermediates as glycolysis. The last reaction happens in the endoplasmic reticulum.

In the Endoplasmic Reticulum

G6P $\rightarrow$ glucose (catalyst: glucose-6-phosphatase)

A glucose transporter shuttles the glucose out into the extracellular space.

Regulation

Regulated Reactions	Glycolysis	Gluconeogenesis
Glucose $\rightleftharpoons$ G6P	Hexokinase: G6P (-)	Glucose-6-phosphatase: [G6P] (substrate level control)
F6P $\rightleftharpoons$ F1,6BP	Phosphofructokinase: F2,6BP (+); AMP (+); ATP (-); citrate (-)	Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase: F26BP (-); AMP (-)
PEP $\rightleftharpoons$ Pyruvate	Pyruvate kinase: F1,6BP (+); acetyl CoA (-); ATP (-); alanine (-); cAMP-dependent phosphorylation (-)	Pyruvate carboxylase: Acetyl-CoA (+)

These reactions are tightly controlled so that glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are not run at the same time. If they were, the F1,6BP $\rightleftharpoons$ F6P reaction could turn into a futile cycle, using up ATP without progressing in either direction.

Glyoxylate Cycle

Plants and bacteria can convert acetyl-CoA to glucose via the glyoxylate cycle. It is a modified version of the TCA cycle; an extra malate is produced which can be converted to glucose. Since animals lack this cycle, they cannot use acetyl-CoA to make glucose because it would stop the TCA cycle.

Starch/Glycogen Synthesis

Glucose is added to chains of glycogen for storage via starch/glycogen synthesis. Glucose is converted to G-6-P, then G-1-P. This is added to UDP, which gives glucose the free energy needed to add to the glycogen. (Plants use ADPG and ATP instead of UDPG and GTP.)

Glucose + ATP $\rightarrow$ G-6-P + ATP

(catalyst: hexokinase)

G-6-P $\rightarrow$ G-1-P

(catalyst: P-glucomutase)

UTP + G-1-P $\rightarrow$ UDPG + PPi

(catalyst: UDPG pyrophosphorylase)

PPi + H₂O $\rightarrow$ 2Pi

The glucose of the UDP-glucose is added to the glycogen chain, leaving UDP.

Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)

The PPP is a source of NADPH, which can be used in reductive anabolic pathways. The PPP can also produce ribose.