1.4: The Role of Science in Society

Unit 1.4 - The Role of Science in Society

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Learning Objectives

• Appreciate the importance of science in culture and society;
• Compare and contrast basic and applied science;
• Explain how scientists disseminate their work;
• Describe characteristics of Indigenous ways of knowing about the natural world;
• Identify how the process of science and Indigenous ways of knowing may complement one another.

Science and Culture

From the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO):

"Science is the greatest collective endeavor. It contributes to ensuring a longer and healthier life, monitors our health, provides medicine to cure our diseases, alleviates aches and pains, helps us to provide water for our basic needs – including our food, provides energy and makes life more fun, including sports, music, entertainment and the latest communication technology. Last but not least, it nourishes our spirit.

Science generates solutions for everyday life and helps us to answer the great mysteries of the universe. In other words, science is one of the most important channels of knowledge. It has a specific role, as well as a variety of functions for the benefit of our society: creating new knowledge, improving education, and increasing the quality of our lives.

Science must respond to societal needs and global challenges. Public understanding and engagement with science, and citizen participation including through the popularization of science are essential to equip citizens to make informed personal and professional choices. Governments need to make decisions based on quality scientific information on issues such as health and agriculture, and parliaments need to legislate on societal issues which necessitate the latest scientific knowledge. National governments need to understand the science behind major global challenges such as climate change, ocean health, biodiversity loss and freshwater security.

To face sustainable development challenges, governments and citizens alike must understand the language of science and must become scientifically literate. On the other hand, scientists must understand the problems policy-makers face and endeavor to make the results of their research relevant and comprehensible to society.

Challenges today cut across the traditional boundaries of disciplines and stretch across the lifecycle of innovation -- from research to knowledge development and its application. Science, technology and innovation must drive our pursuit of more equitable and sustainable development" (2021).

Two Types of Science: Basic Science and Applied Science

The scientific community has been debating for the last few decades about the value of different types of science. Is it valuable to pursue science for the sake of simply gaining knowledge, or does scientific knowledge only have worth if we can apply it to solving a specific problem or to bettering our lives? This question focuses on the differences between two types of science: basic science and applied science.

Basic science or “pure” science seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the short-term application of that knowledge. It is not focused on developing a product or a service of immediate public or commercial value. The immediate goal of basic science is knowledge for knowledge’s sake, though this does not mean that, in the end, it may not result in a practical application.

In contrast, applied science or “technology,” aims to use science to solve real-world problems, making it possible, for example, to improve a crop yield, find a cure for a particular disease, or save animals threatened by a natural disaster (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). In applied science, the problem is usually defined for the researcher.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): After Hurricane Ike struck the Gulf Coast in 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service rescued this brown pelican. Thanks to applied science, scientists knew how to rehabilitate the bird. (credit: FEMA)

Some individuals may perceive applied science as “useful” and basic science as “useless.” A question these people might pose to a scientist advocating knowledge acquisition would be, “What for?” A careful look at the history of science, however, reveals that basic knowledge has resulted in many remarkable applications of great value. Many scientists think that a basic understanding of science is necessary before an application is developed; therefore, applied science relies on the results generated through basic science. Other scientists think that it is time to move on from basic science and instead to find solutions to actual problems. Both approaches are valid. It is true that there are problems that demand immediate attention; however, few solutions would be found without the help of the wide knowledge foundation generated through basic science.

One example of how basic and applied science can work together to solve practical problems occurred after the discovery of DNA structure led to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing DNA replication. Strands of DNA, unique in every human, are found in our cells, where they provide the instructions necessary for life. During DNA replication, DNA makes new copies of itself, shortly before a cell divides. Understanding the mechanisms of DNA replication enabled scientists to develop laboratory techniques that are now used to identify genetic diseases, pinpoint individuals who were at a crime scene, and determine paternity. Without basic science, it is unlikely that applied science would exist.

Another example of the link between basic and applied research is the Human Genome Project, a study in which each human chromosome was analyzed and mapped to determine the precise sequence of DNA subunits and the exact location of each gene. (The gene is the basic unit of heredity; an individual’s complete collection of genes is his or her genome). Other less complex organisms have also been studied as part of this project in order to gain a better understanding of human chromosomes. The Human Genome Project relied on basic research carried out with simple organisms and, later, with the human genome (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). An important end goal eventually became using the data for applied research, seeking cures and early diagnoses for genetically related diseases.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): The Human Genome Project was a 13-year collaborative effort among researchers working in several different fields of science. The project, which sequenced the entire human genome, was completed in 2003. (credit: the U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs (http://genomics.energy.gov))

While research efforts in both basic science and applied science are usually carefully planned, it is important to note that some discoveries are made by serendipity, that is, by means of a fortunate accident or a lucky surprise. Penicillin was discovered when biologist Alexander Fleming accidentally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria open. An unwanted mold grew on the dish, killing the bacteria. The mold turned out to be Penicillium, and a new antibiotic was discovered. Even in the highly organized world of science, luck—when combined with an observant, curious mind—can lead to unexpected breakthroughs.

Video

Watch this video to see how science is playing a role in understanding Peary caribou in Canada.
Question after watching: What type of research is this? Basic or applied?

Reporting Scientific Work

Whether scientific research is basic science or applied science, scientists must share their findings in order for other researchers to expand and build upon their discoveries. Collaboration with other scientists—when planning, conducting, and analyzing results—are all important for scientific research. For this reason, important aspects of a scientist’s work are communicating with peers and disseminating results to peers. Scientists can share results by presenting them at a scientific meeting or conference, but this approach can reach only the select few who are present. Instead, most scientists present their results in peer-reviewed manuscripts that are published in scientific journals. Peer-reviewed manuscripts are scientific papers that are reviewed by a scientist’s colleagues, or peers. These colleagues are qualified individuals, often experts in the same research area, who judge whether or not the scientist’s work is suitable for publication. The process of peer review helps to ensure that the research described in a scientific paper or grant proposal is original, significant, logical, and thorough. Grant proposals, which are requests for research funding, are also subject to peer review. Scientists publish their work so other scientists can reproduce their experiments under similar or different conditions to expand on the findings. The experimental results must be consistent with the findings of other scientists.

A scientific paper is very different from creative writing. Although creativity is required to design experiments, there are fixed guidelines when it comes to presenting scientific results. First, scientific writing should be concise and accurate. A scientific paper needs to be succinct but detailed enough to allow peers to reproduce the experiments.

The scientific paper consists of several specific sections—introduction, materials and methods, results, and discussion. This structure is sometimes called the “IMRaD” format. There are usually acknowledgment and reference sections as well as an abstract (a concise summary) at the beginning of the paper. There might be additional sections depending on the type of paper and the journal where it will be published; for example, some review papers require an outline.

The introduction starts with brief, but broad, background information about what is known in the field. A good introduction also gives the rationale of the work; it justifies the work carried out and is where the hypothesis or research question driving the research will be presented. The introduction may also briefly mention the results of the paper. The introduction refers to the published scientific work of others and therefore requires citations following the style of the journal. Using the work or ideas of others without proper citation is considered plagiarism.

The materials and methods section includes a complete and accurate description of the substances used, and the method and techniques used by the researchers to gather data. The description should be thorough enough to allow another researcher to repeat the experiment and obtain similar results, but it does not have to be verbose. This section will also include information on how measurements were made and what types of calculations and statistical analyses were used to examine raw data. Although the materials and methods section gives an accurate description of the experiments, it does not discuss them.

Some journals require a results section followed by a discussion section, but some may combine both. If the journal does not allow the combination of both sections, the results section simply narrates the findings without any further interpretation. The results are presented by means of tables or graphs, but no duplicate information should be presented. In the discussion section, the researcher will interpret the results, describe how variables may be related, and attempt to explain the observations. It is indispensable to conduct an extensive literature search to put the results in the context of previously published scientific research. Therefore, proper citations are included in this section as well.

Finally, a conclusion section may be used to summarize the importance of the experimental findings. Most often, the conclusions are included in the discussion. While the scientific paper almost certainly answered one or more scientific questions that were stated, any good research should lead to more questions. Therefore, a well-done scientific paper leaves doors open for the researcher and others to continue and expand on the findings.

Review articles do not follow the IMRAD format because they do not present original scientific findings, or primary literature; instead, they summarize and comment on findings that were published as primary literature and typically include extensive reference sections. They follow specific methods of searching and summarizing the scientific literature, to ensure that their findings are reproducible.

Indigenous Science

The following text may be different than text that you have come across before in a science context because Indigenous Science will be woven throughout the content. You will find this content as green call-out boxes throughout this text.

Now that you have read Unit 1.3, the following piece has been included to provide you with another perspective on science and culture. Consider this not as an alternative to what you have already learned but an examination of how each can contribute to a better understanding of nature, the world, and its importance. Indigenous Science, explained below, is formally known to many biologists and ecologists as Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK); this text will use TEK throughout the rest of the Units.

Indigenous Connections

It is important to balance and consider Indigenous Science, that which recognizes the knowledge inherent in each culture. Yamada, a Japanese historian of Oriental science, writes that "every culture and every society has its own science, and its function is sustaining its mother society and culture” (1970, p. 585). Cultural diversity suggests that Western Science (WS) and Indigenous Science (IS) should be viewed as co-existing or parallel. Hatcher et al. (2009, p. 15) describe Indigenous Science metaphorically as a “living knowledge” that requires less dependence on knowledge transfer from books and requires “knowledge gardening with living knowledge keepers,” which differs from Western Science. As you study biology, it is important to balance and consider the traditional contexts of IS with WS evidence and reason.

The traditional wisdom component of IS—the values and ways of decision-making relating to science knowledge—is particularly rich in time-tested approaches that foster sustainability and environmental integrity. WS is the most dominant science in the world today and is widely thought of as "officially sanctioned science." However, because WS has been implicated in many of the world’s ecological disasters—pesticide contamination, introduced species, dams and water diversions that have impacted salmon and other indigenous species—it seems that reliance on Western Science alone can be seen as increasingly problematic and even counterproductive.

The process of generating or learning Indigenous ways of living in nature is coming to know (Cajete, 2000; Peat, 1994), a phrase that connotes a journey. Coming to know differs from a Eurocentric science process to know or to discover that connotes a destination, such as a patent or published record of discovery. Indigenous coming to know is a journey toward wisdom or a journey of wisdom in action, not a discovery of knowledge (Aikenhead & Ogawa, 2007). For Michell (2005), coming to know includes the goal of living in harmony with nature for the survival of the community. “Nature provides a blueprint of how to live well and all that is necessary to sustain life” (Michell, 2005, p. 39).

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) combines current observation with wisdom, knowledge, and experience that has been acquired over thousands of years of direct human contact with specific environments. TEK interprets how the world works from the cultural perspective unique to a particular group of Indigenous peoples. Although the term TEK came into widespread use in the 1980’s, TEK itself is timeless and predates written record (Corsiglia & Snively, 1997). The stories and testimonies of Indigenous peoples are usually related to a home place or territory. TEK embodies both remembered sensory information built upon repeated observation, and formal understandings that are usually transmitted orally in story form or ceremonial form with abstract principles and important information encapsulated in metaphor (Cruikshank, 1991; Turner et al., 2000). Perhaps the most useful way to think about Indigenous Science is that it is complementary to Western Science and not a replacement for it. Rooted in different worldviews, Indigenous and Western Science are not easy to combine, and it may not be desirable to meld the two. Each knowledge system is legitimate in its own right. The two kinds of knowledge may be pursued separately but in parallel, enriching one another as needed (Berkes, 2012). As such, weaving TEK with western science throughout this text will help you develop a deeper understanding of key biology concepts from multiple perspectives.

Numerous traditional peoples’ scientific and technological contributions have been incorporated in modern applied sciences such as ecology, biology, medicine, architecture, engineering, geology, pharmacology, agriculture, horticulture, agronomy, metallurgy, navigation, astronomy, animal husbandry, fish and wildlife management, nautical science, plant breeding, and military and political science (Berkes, 2012; Turner & Peacock, 2005; Deur & Turner, 2005; Turner, 2014a, 2014b; Weatherford, 1988, 1991). The truth is, directly or indirectly, we are all benefiting from Indigenous scientific and technological innovations every time we dine, clothe ourselves, travel or go to the doctor.

TEK provides invaluable time-tested resource management practices that can be used alongside WS to develop more workable and effective approaches to current resource management strategies than either could accomplish alone. In fact, it has become a policy requirement in Canada, and in particular Northern Canada, that TEK be incorporated into environmental assessments affecting wildlife management including: migratory birds, species at risk, forest practices, and fisheries management (Usher, 2000).

Some of the contributions of TEK and Indigenous Science scholarship to contemporary environmental knowledge, conservation and resource management worldwide (acknowledged by Western scientists) are outlined below:

• Perceptive investigations of traditional environmental knowledge systems provide important biological and ecological insights (Berkes 2012; Houde, 2007; Turner & Peacock, 2005; Turner, 2014a, 2014b; Usher, 2000; Warren, 1997).
• Help locate rare and endangered species and provide cost-effective shortcuts for investigating the local resource bases. Local knowledge makes it possible to survey and map in a few days what would otherwise take months, for example, soil types, plant and animal species, migration pathways, and aggregation sites (Berkes, 2012; Usher, 2000; Warren, 1997).
• Provide knowledge of time-tested resource management practices and can be used to develop workable approaches to current resource management strategies (Houde, 2007; Turner & Peacock, 2005; Usher, 2000; Warren et al., 1995).
• Provides time-tested in-depth knowledge of the local area (past and present) that can be triangulated with WS resulting in more accurate environmental assessment and impact statements. People who depend on local resources for their livelihood are often able to assess the true costs and benefits of development better than any evaluator from outside (Houde, 2007; Warren, 1997; Warren et al., 1995).
• Provides experience-based value statements about appropriate and ethical behavior with respect to animals and the environment (Berkes, 2012; Deur & Turner, 2005; Turner, 2014a, 2014b; Houde, 2007; Usher, 2000).

A key point here is that scientists may be unable to understand the complexity of ecosystems, especially northern or distant ecosystems, through sporadic observations, as opposed to lived experience.

Recognition of the importance of incorporating IS and TEK in environmental planning is explicitly addressed in reports and agreements in Canada and internationally. The Brundtland Commission report, Our Common Future (WCED: World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987), recognized the role of TEK in sustainable development; and the Convention on Biological Diversity, Agenda 21 (UN Conference on the Environment, 1993), declared that Indigenous people possess important traditional scientific knowledge. The document Science for the Twenty-First Century: A New Commitment (World Conference on Science, 2000), set new standards for respecting, protecting and utilizing Indigenous Knowledge. Working scientists worldwide, associated with hundreds of institutes, are collaborating with Elders and knowledge holders to collect and document examples of TEK and IS knowledge; this includes institutes in the United States, Canada, Middle and South America, Africa, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, India, Russia, China, and Japan.

To find out more about researchers working with Indigenous partners and how they are benefiting from traditional knowledge of the natural world, read "First Nations Communities Bring Expertise to Canada’s Scientific Research" by Owens (2021) from Nature.

Source: Adapted from Snively and Corsiglia (2016).

References

Aikenhead, G. S., & Ogawa, M. (2007). Indigenous knowledge and science revisited. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 2(3), 539–620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-007-9067-8

Berkes, F. (2012). Sacred ecology (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203123843

Cajete, G. (2000). Native science: Natural laws of interdependence. Clear Light Publishers.

Corsiglia, J., & Snively, G. (1997). Knowing home: NisGa’a traditional knowledge and wisdom improve environmental decision making. Alternatives Journal, 23(3), 22–27. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A19908795/AONE

Cruikshank, J. (1991). Reading voices = Dän dhá ts’edenintth’é: Oral and written interpretations of the Yukon’s past. Douglas & McIntyre.

Deur, D. E., & Turner, N. J. (Eds.) (2005). Keeping it living: Traditions of plant use and cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America. University of Washington Press.

Hatcher, A., Bartlett, C., Marshall, A., & Marshall, M. (2009). Two-eyed seeing in the classroom environment: Concepts, approaches, and challenges. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 9(3), 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/14926150903118342

Houde, N. (2007). The six faces of traditional ecological knowledge: Challenges and opportunities for Canadian co-management arrangements. Ecology and Society, 12(2), 33–51. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-02270-120234

Michell, H. (2005). Nēhîthâwâk of Reindeer Lake, Canada: Worldview, epistemology and relationships with the natural world. Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 34, 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1017/S132601110000394X

Owens, B. (2021, November 17). First Nations communities bring expertise to Canada’s scientific research. Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-03060-x

Peat, F. D. (1994). Lighting the seventh fire: The spiritual ways, healing, and science of the Native American. Birch Lane Press.

Snively, G., & Corsiglia, J. (2016). Indigenous science: Proven, practical and timeless. In G. Snively & W. L. Williams (Eds.), Knowing home: Braiding Indigenous science with Western science, book 1. University of Victoria. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/knowi...pter/chapter-6

Turner, N. J. (2014a). Ancient pathways, ancestral knowledge: Ethnobotany and ecological wisdom of Indigenous peoples of northwestern North America, Volume 1: The history and practice of Indigenous plant knowledge. McGill-Queen’s University Press.

Turner, N. J. (2014b). Ancient pathways, ancestral knowledge: Ethnobotany and ecological wisdom of Indigenous peoples of northwestern North America, Volume 2: The place and meaning of plants in Indigenous cultures and worldviews. McGill-Queens University Press.

Turner, N. J., Ignace, M. B., & Ignace, R. (2000). Traditional ecological knowledge and wisdom of Aboriginal peoples of British Columbia. Ecological Applications, 10(5), 1275–1287. https://doi.org/10.2307/2641283

Turner, N. J., & Peacock, S. (2005). Solving the perennial paradox: Ethnobotanical evidence for plant resource management on the Northwest Coast. In D. Deur & N. J. Turner (Eds.), Keeping it living: Traditions of plant use and cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America (pp. 101–150). University of Washington Press.

United Nations Conference on the Environment. (1993). Convention on biological diversity (No. 30619). United Nations Treaty Series. https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-un-en.pdf

Usher, P. J. (2000). Traditional ecological knowledge in environmental assessment and management. Arctic, 53(2), 183–193. https://doi.org/10.14430/arctic849

Warren, D. M. (1997). Development advisory team (DAT) training program manual (6th ed.). Iowa State University.

Warren, D. M., Slikkerveer, L. J., & Brokensha, D. (Eds.). (1995). The cultural dimension of development: Indigenous knowledge systems. Intermediate Technology Publications.

Weatherford, J. (1988). Indian givers: How the Indians of the Americas transformed the world. Random House.

Weatherford, J. (1991). Native roots: How the Indians enriched America. Random House.

World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Report of the world commission on environment and development: Our common future. United Nations. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record..._42_427-EN.pdf

World Conference on Science. (2000). Science for the twenty-first century: A new commitment. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/4822...2938.locale=en

Yamada, K. (1970). Pattern-ninshiki-seisaku: Chugoku kagaku no shisoteki fudo [Pattern-recognition-production: Philosophical climate of Chinese science]. In T. Hiroshige (Ed.), Kagakushi no susume [Invitation to the history of science] (pp. 73–139). Chikuma Shobo.

Videos

Watch the three videos above as examples of the TEK and WS working together.
Question after watching: Do you know of other examples of TEK and IS from your province or region?

References:

UNESCO. (2021). Science for Society. United Nations Education, Science, and Culture Organization. From: https://en.unesco.org/themes/science-society