14.8: Case Study Conclusion: Heels and Chapter Summary
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You may have seen signs such as the one in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) indicating that high-heeled shoes are not allowed on certain walking surfaces because of the risk of injury. High heels affect a person’s balance, and wearers can easily twist their ankle on uneven or slippery surfaces, causing a sprain or even a fracture. Besides twisting an ankle, wearing high heels on a regular basis can cause a variety of other negative health consequences—some of which may be long-lasting.
As Amari discovered at the beginning of the chapter, wearing high heels can result in a condition called metatarsalgia. Metatarsalgia is named for the metatarsal bones, which are the five bones that run through the ball of the foot just behind the toes (highlighted in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) ) Wearing high heels causes excessive pressure on the ball of the foot, as described at the beginning of this chapter. Additionally, the toes are forced to pull upwards in high heels, which moves the fleshy padding away from the ball of the foot, adding to the overall pressure placed on this region. Over time, this can cause inflammation and direct stress on the bones, resulting in pain in the ball of the foot known as metatarsalgia. The pain particularly occurs in weight-bearing positions such as standing, walking, or running—which is what Amari was experiencing. There may also be pain, numbness, or tingling in the toes associated with metatarsalgia.
Wearing high heels can also cause stress fractures in the feet, which are tiny breaks in the bone that occur due to repeated mechanical stress. This is due to the excessive pressure that high heels put on some of the bones of the feet. These fractures are somewhat similar to what occurs in osteoporosis when the bone mass decreases to the point where bones can fracture easily as people go about their daily activities. In both cases, a major, noticeable injury is not necessary to create tiny fractures. As you have learned, tiny fractures that accrue over time are the cause of dowager’s hump, or kyphosis, which is often seen in women with osteoporosis.
Don’t think you are immune to stress fractures just because you don’t wear high heels! This injury also commonly occurs in people who participate in sports that involve repetitive striking of the foot on the ground, such as running, tennis, basketball, or gymnastics. Stress fractures may be avoided by taking preventative measures such as ramping up any increase in activity slowly, cross-training by engaging in a variety of different sports or activities, resting if you experience pain, and wearing well-cushioned and supportive running shoes.
Amari learned through their online research that wearing high heels can also lead to foot deformities such as bunions and hammertoes. As you saw in the section Disorders of the Skeletal System, a bunion is a protrusion on the side of the foot, most often at the base of the big toe. It can be caused by wearing shoes with a narrow, pointed toe box — a common shape for high heels (see Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). The pressure of the shoes on the side of the foot causes an enlargement of bone or inflammation of other tissues in the region, which pushes the big toe towards the other toes.
Hammertoes are abnormal bend in the middle joint of the second, third, or fourth toe (with the big toe being the first toe), causing the toe to be shaped similar to a hammer as seen in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). The narrow, pointed toe box of many high heels, combined with the way the toes are squished into the front of the shoe as a result of the height of the heel, can cause the toes to become deformed in this manner. Treatments for bunions and hammertoe include wearing shoes with a roomy toe box, padding or taping the toes, and toe exercises and stretches. If the bunion or hammertoe does not respond to these treatments, surgery may be necessary to correct the deformity.
Because the bones of the skeleton are connected and work together with other systems to support the body, wearing high heels can also cause physical problems in areas other than the feet. Wearing high heels shifts a person’s posture and alignment and can put a strain on tendons, muscles, and other joints in the body. For instance, research from a team at Stanford University published in 2014 suggests that wearing high heels, particularly if the person is overweight or the heels are very high, may increase the risk of osteoarthritis (OA) in the knee due to added stress on the knee joint as the person walks. As you have learned, OA results from the breakdown of cartilage and bone at the joint. Because it can only be treated to minimize symptoms, not cured, OA could be an unfortunate long-term consequence of wearing high heels.
Amari has decided that wearing high heels regularly is not worth the pain and potential long-term damage to their body. After consulting with their doctor, who confirmed they have metatarsalgia, Amari was able to successfully treat it with ice, rest, and wearing comfortable, supportive shoes instead of heels.
High heels are not the only kind of shoes that can cause problems. Flip-flops, worn-out sneakers, and shoes that are too tight can all cause foot issues. To prevent future problems from shoe choices, Amari is following guidelines recommended by medical experts, which include:
- Wearing shoes that fit well, have plenty of room in the toe box, are supportive, and are comfortable right away. There should be no “break-in” period needed for shoes.
- Avoiding shoes that have high heels, especially ones over two inches in height; narrow, pointed toe boxes; or very thin heels. The shoes in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) are an example of a type that should be avoided!
- If high heels must be worn, they should be worn for only a limited period of time.
As you have learned in this chapter, your skeletal system carries out a variety of important functions in your body, including physical support. But even though it is strong, your skeletal system can become damaged and deformed—even through such a seemingly innocuous act as wearing a certain type of shoe. Taking good care of your skeletal system is necessary to help it continue to take good care of the rest of you.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, you learned about the skeletal system. Specifically, you learned that:
- The skeletal system is the organ system that provides an internal framework for the human body. In adults, the skeletal system contains 206 bones.
- Bones are organs made of dense connective tissues, mainly the tough protein collagen. Bones also contain blood vessels, nerves, and other tissues. Bones are hard and rigid due to deposits of calcium and other mineral salts within their living tissues. Besides bones, the skeletal system includes cartilage and ligaments.
- The skeletal system has many different functions, including supporting the body and giving it shape, protecting internal organs, providing attachment surfaces for skeletal muscles, allowing body movements, producing blood cells, storing minerals, helping to maintain mineral homeostasis, and producing endocrine hormones.
- The skeleton is traditionally divided into two major parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
- The axial skeleton consists of a total of 80 bones. It includes the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. It also includes the three tiny ossicles in the middle ear and the hyoid bone in the throat.
- The skull provides a bony framework for the head. It consists of 22 different bones: eight in the cranium, which encloses the brain, and 14 in the face, which includes the upper and lower jaw.
- The vertebral column is a flexible, S-shaped column of 33 vertebrae that connects the trunk with the skull and encloses the spinal cord. The vertebrae are divided into five regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions. The S shape of the vertebral column allows it to absorb shocks and distribute the weight of the body.
- The rib cage holds and protects the organs of the upper part of the trunk, including the heart and lungs. It includes the 12 thoracic vertebrae, the sternum, and 12 pairs of ribs.
- The appendicular skeleton consists of a total of 126 bones. It includes the bones of the four limbs, shoulder girdle, and pelvic girdle. The girdles attach the appendages to the axial skeleton.
- Each upper limb consists of 30 bones. There is one bone, called the humerus, in the upper arm, and two bones, called the ulna and radius, in the lower arm. The wrist contains eight carpal bones, the hand contains five metacarpals, and the fingers consist of 14 phalanges. The thumb is opposable to the palm and fingers of the same hand.
- Each lower limb also consists of 30 bones. There is one bone, called the femur, in the upper leg, and two bones, called the tibia and fibula, in the lower leg. The patella covers the knee joint. The ankle contains seven tarsal bones, and the foot contains five metatarsals. The tarsals and metatarsals form the heel and arch of the foot. The bones in the toes consist of 14 phalanges.
- The shoulder girdle attaches the upper limbs to the trunk of the body. It is connected to the axial skeleton only by muscles, allowing mobility of the upper limbs. Bones of the shoulder girdle include a right and left clavicle and a right and left scapula.
- The pelvic girdle attaches the legs to the trunk of the body and supports the organs of the abdomen. It is connected to the axial skeleton by ligaments. The pelvic girdle consists of two halves that are fused together in adults. Each half consists of three bones: the ilium, pubis, and ischium.
- Bones are organs that consist mainly of bone, or osseous, tissue. Osseous tissue is a type of connective tissue consisting of a collagen matrix that is mineralized with calcium and phosphorus crystals. The combination of flexible collagen and minerals makes bone hard without making it brittle.
- There are two types of osseous tissues: cortical bone tissue and spongy bone tissue. Cortical bone tissue is smooth and dense. It forms the outer layer of bones. Spongy bone tissue is porous and light. It is found inside many bones.
- Besides osseous tissues, bones also contain nerves, blood vessels, bone marrow, and periosteum.
- Bone tissue is composed of four different types of bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, and osteogenic cells. Osteoblasts form new collagen matrix and mineralize it, osteoclasts break down bone, osteocytes regulate the formation and breakdown of bone, and osteogenic cells divide and differentiate to form new osteoblasts. Bone is a very active tissue, constantly being remodeled by the work of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
- There are six types of bones in the human body: long bones such as the limb bones, short bones such as the wrist bones, sesamoid bones such as the patella, sutural bones in the skull, and irregular bones such as the vertebrae.
- Early in the development of a human fetus, the skeleton is made almost entirely of cartilage. The relatively soft cartilage gradually turns into hard bone. This is called ossification. It begins at a primary ossification center in the middle of the bone and later also occurs at secondary ossification centers in the ends of the bone. The bone can no longer grow in length after the areas of ossification meet and fuse at the time of skeletal maturity.
- Throughout life, bone is constantly being replaced in the process of bone remodeling. In this process, osteoclasts resorb bone and osteoblasts make new bone to replace it. Bone remodeling shapes the skeleton, repairs tiny flaws in bones, and helps maintain mineral homeostasis in the blood.
- Bone repair is the natural process in which a bone repairs itself following a bone fracture. This process may take several weeks. In the process, periosteum produces cells that develop into osteoblasts, and the osteoblasts form a new bone matrix to heal the fracture. Bone repair may be affected by diet, age, pre-existing bone disease, or other factors.
- Joints are locations at which bones of the skeleton connect with one another.
- Joints can be classified structurally or functionally, and there is significant overlap between the two types of classifications.
- The structural classification of joints depends on the type of tissue that binds the bones to each other at the joint. There are three types of joints in the structural classification: fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints.
- The functional classification of joints is based on the type and degree of movement that they allow. There are three types of joints in the functional classification: immovable, partly movable, and movable joints.
- Movable joints can be classified further according to the type of movement they allow. There are six classes of movable joints: pivot, hinge, saddle, plane, condyloid, and ball-and-socket joints.
- A number of disorders affect the skeletal system, including bone fractures and bone cancers. The two most common disorders of the skeletal system are osteoporosis and osteoarthritis.
- Osteoporosis is an age-related disorder in which bones lose mass, weaken, and break more easily than normal bones. The underlying mechanism in all cases of osteoporosis is an imbalance between bone formation and bone resorption in bone remodeling. Osteoporosis may also occur as a side effect of other disorders or certain medications.
- Osteoporosis is diagnosed by measuring a patient’s bone density and comparing it with the normal level of peak bone density. Fractures are the most dangerous aspect of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is rarely fatal, but complications of fractures often are.
- Risk factors for osteoporosis include older age, female sex, European or Asian ancestry, family history of osteoporosis, short stature and small bones, smoking, alcohol consumption, lack of exercise, vitamin D deficiency, poor nutrition, and consumption of soft drinks.
- Osteoporosis is often treated with medications such as bisphosphonates that may slow or even reverse bone loss. Preventing osteoporosis includes eliminating any risk factors that can be controlled through changes of behavior, such as undertaking weight-bearing exercise.
- Osteoarthritis (OA) is a joint disease that results from the breakdown of joint cartilage and bone. The most common symptoms are joint pain and stiffness. OA is thought to be caused by mechanical stress on the joints with insufficient self-repair of cartilage, coupled with low-grade inflammation of the joints.
- Diagnosis of OA is typically made on the basis of signs and symptoms, such as joint deformities, pain, and stiffness. X-rays or other tests are sometimes used to either support the diagnosis or rule out other disorders. Age is the chief risk factor for OA. Other risk factors include joint injury, excess body weight, and a family history of OA.
- OA cannot be cured, but the symptoms can often be treated successfully. Treatments may include exercise, efforts to decrease stress on joints, pain medications, and surgery to replace affected hip or knee joints.
As you have learned in this chapter, one of the important functions of the skeletal system is to allow movement of the body. But it doesn’t do it alone. Movement is caused by the contraction of muscles, which pull on the bones, causing them to move. Read the next chapter to learn about this and other important functions of the muscular system.
Chapter Summary Review
- Hematopoiesis is carried out by:
- spongy bone tissue
- periosteum
- yellow bone marrow
- red bone marrow
- True or False. Osteocalcin is a hormone produced by bone cells.
- True or False. Vertebrae make up part of the rib cage.
- For each of the following bones, indicate whether they are part of the axial or appendicular skeleton.
- The ossicles of the middle ear
- The femur
- The phalanges
- The bones of the cranium
- The ilium
- Why does the rib cage need to be flexible and why is it able to be flexible?
- In general, what do “girdles” in the skeletal system do?
- Which protein does bone mainly consist of?
- Keratin
- Collagen
- Cellulose
- Elastin
- For each of the descriptions below, identify which process best fits the description. Use each process only once. Processes: bone growth; bone repair; bone remodeling
- New osteoblasts form from the periosteum and produce new bone tissue.
- Cartilage grows, and the primary and secondary ossification centers move towards each other.
- Osteoclasts break down bone tissue and osteoblasts build new bone tissue.
- For each of the following processes, describe when it occurs.
- Bone growth
- Bone repair
- Bone remodeling
- Would swimming likely be more effective as an exercise for preventing osteoporosis or as a treatment for osteoarthritis? Explain your answer.
- True or False. Use of anabolic steroids in the teenage years generally makes people taller.
- True or False. The largest joint in the human body is the knee joint.
- How much of an adult’s skeletal mass is broken down and rebuilt each year?
- None
- 5 percent
- 10 percent
- 30 percent
- Explain why some of the vertebrae become misshapen in the condition called dowager’s hump, or kyphosis.
- Explain why osteoarthritis often involves inflammation in the joints.
- Osteoporosis can involve both excess bone resorption as well as insufficient production of new bone tissue. What are the two main bone cell types that carry out these processes, respectively?
- True or False. Bone mass does not decrease as men age.
- True or False. Ideally, a person’s spine would be perfectly straight and rigid.
- Compare and contrast a tendon and a ligament.
- Describe two roles that calcium plays in the bones of the body.
- How many bones are in the adult human skeleton?
- 80
- 126
- 206
- 270
Attributions
- No Heels by Sam Howzit, CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
- Mratatarsus by Henry Gray, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
- Stiletto heels by berthovanrhee, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
- Hammer Toe by Mikael Häggström, M.D., CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
- Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0