6.3.4: Climate Strategies

Climate Strategies

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Learning Objectives

• Explain the global efforts to communicate about, and combat, climate change
• Describe the differences between adaptation and mitigation strategies

Introduction

With the increase in understanding that our activities are creating a global crisis of epic proportions, the impacts of climate change are now being actively debated in the corridors of governments and major corporations. Politicians, the media, and others are also increasingly replacing “climate change” with more vivid language, like “climate crisis” and “climate emergency.” This will hopefully encourage even more governments and industries to come to the table and cooperate like never before to address the fundamental drivers of climate change. Solving this global crisis requires an international multi-pronged approach that should include ecosystem protection, restoration, and direct species management, reduction of carbon emissions, sustainable planning, and legislative action. 

International Agreements

On the international front, key initiatives related to research and planning are being led by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), which in 1988 established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC undertakes comprehensive reviews of the science of global warming, with a focus on likely scenarios of climatic, ecological, and economic consequences. The IPCC also does research on ways to slow or prevent the increases in GHGs and on how economic and ecological systems might adapt to predicted climate change. At the international level, the IPCC is the most credible source of information about climate change. 

Because of concerns about the potentially disastrous consequences of global warming, in 1990 the IPCC and other groups of climate specialists recommended that the United Nations (UN) mobilize global leadership to negotiate an international agreement to reduce emissions of GHGs. The UN then established an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee to draft the terms of a UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). After a series of difficult international negotiations, the UNFCCC was drafted and then adopted in 1992 at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

The objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric GHGs at concentrations that would prevent a dangerous intensification of the planetary greenhouse effect. Signatory nations to the UNFCCC, known as “parties to the convention,” have agreed to undertake certain actions to compile information on emissions of GHGs, develop policies to decrease emissions, prepare strategies to adapt to anticipated effects of climate change, and provide financial and scientific support to developing countries. Moreover, the 140 countries that signed the UNFCCC in Rio agreed to discuss its implementation at a global forum, which was held in Berlin in 1995. At that meeting, it was agreed that global emissions of GHGs should be reduced and a further series of international negotiations was needed to reach consensus on an implementation strategy. Those negotiations were completed at another meeting, held in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997. The outcome of that key meeting was the Kyoto Protocol.

Most years, since 1992, the world's countries have come together to renegotiate and discuss climate change at an UN-organized Conference of the Parties (Parties meaning those who signed to the UNFCCC), also known as "COP". As of 2022, COP27 was held in Egypt celebrating the 30th Anniversary of the ratification of the UNFCCC where attendees from 197 countries met to discuss solutions, financing, and collaboration. 

National and Local Action

While the United States never fully ratified the Kyoto Protocol, it has made some commitments to reduce its emissions of CO₂ through COP agreements. The Environmental Protection Agency is the federal agency largely tasked with setting these goals and targets. Some of these goals and targets include: 

• Reducing U.S. greenhouse gas emissions 50-52% below 2005 levels in 2030.
• Reaching 100% carbon pollution-free electricity by 2035.
• Achieving a net-zero emissions economy by 2050.
• On September 23, 2021, the EPA issued a final rule that will phase down the U.S. production and consumption of hydroflourocarbons (HFCs) by 85% by 2035, as mandated by the American Innovation and Manufacturing Act of 2020. A global phasedown of HFCs is expected to avoid up to 0.5°C of global warming by 2100.
• On December 20, 2021, EPA finalized federal greenhouse gas emissions standards for passenger cars and light trucks for Model Years (MY) 2023 through 2026. EPA also announced plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other harmful air pollutants from heavy-duty trucks for MY 2027 and beyond.
• EPA is implementing CO₂ emission standards for airplanes used in commercial aviation and for large business jets. These standards are consistent with international standards set by the United Nations' International Civil Aviation Organization.
• The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) program was created under the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct), which amended the Clean Air Act (CAA). The RFS program is a national policy that requires a certain volume of renewable fuel to replace or reduce the quantity of petroleum-based transportation fuel, heating oil, or jet fuel.

To accomplish any reductions is a formidable challenge as the United States has the highest per capita production of greenhouse gasses in the world. In fact, the US has not made most of its previously set targets, largely due to expanding use of natural gas and oil.

This is largely due to the fact that, like most other developed countries, the US has not produced an effective strategy for meeting its agreements. There is a great deal of intense political and economic controversies associated with the actions that would be necessary. In addition, there is a great deal of argument between countries about who should make the most changes. Moreover, the federal government and some other jurisdictions, are focusing on intensity-based targets, which encourage improved technological efficiencies but do not necessarily reduce the aggregate emissions of GHGs. Such tactics do little to reduce the rapid increase of emissions from new fossil-fuel enterprises.

To combat climate change, the leadership of many states and cities have started to enact laws to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and habitat destruction. Many industries are also hard at work developing “greener” technologies to enable us to live more sustainably. Communities are coming together to implement solutions that are a best-fit for local environments and economies. Conservation biologists also play a crucial role in mitigating the negative impacts of climate change. In addition to highlighting the plight of the natural world to society at large, we could work towards reducing the loss of ecosystem services and preventing species extinctions. To accomplish this task, we need to identify which species and ecosystems are most sensitive to climate change and develop strategies that will ensure the continued persistence of as many sensitive species and their habitats as possible.

While the situation surrounding global climate change is in serious need of our attention, it is important to realize that many scientists, leaders, and concerned citizens are making solutions to climate change part of their life’s work (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). The two solutions to the problems caused by climate change are mitigation and adaptation, and we will likely need a combination of both in order to prosper in the future.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Young people demand action to protect their futures at the 2021 UN Climate Change Conference, also known as COP26, held in Glasgow, Scotland. Photograph by UNFCCC, https://ukcop26.org/young-people-dem...ures-at-cop26/, Open Government Licence(OGL).

Video

The UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) outline issues and strategies for the future of humans and natural systems.
This 8.5-minute video describes SDG 13, which is focused on Climate Action. 
Question after watching: Which of the strategies have you heard of before? Which strategies are new to you? What barriers to change resonate with you? What actions can you take to make change happen?

Climate Mitigation Strategies

In general, a strategy to mitigate climate change is one that reduces the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere or prevents additional emissions. Mitigation strategies attempt to “fix” the problems caused by climate change.

Greenhouse Gas Reduction

There are many options for reducing the adverse impacts to society from CO₂ and other greenhouse gas emissions, such as switching to sources of electricity that do not contribute to the CO₂ problem, trying to generate fossil-based electricity by not releasing the CO₂ into the atmosphere, or exploring ways to reduce the demand for products that produce greenhouse gas emissions. Governmental regulations regarding the fuel efficiency of vehicles is one example of an institutionalized mitigation strategy already in place in many countries around the world.

Putting a price on carbon is the method many economists favor for reducing or controlling greenhouse gas emissions. Pricing carbon provides producers and consumers with a monetary incentive to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by placing a value on each unit of carbon dioxide or carbon dioxide equivalent that is emitted into the atmosphere. In Canada, for example, there are carbon taxes, or charges for burning fossil fuels. This is known as the "carbon pollution pricing system" and has been in place since 2019. This does not exist in the US because of political and economic controversies.

In Canada (and some other nations), however, it works well. Their federal pricing system has two parts: a regulatory charge on fossil fuels like gasoline and natural gas, known as the Fuel Charge, and a performance-based system for industries, known as the Output-Based Pricing System. Each province or territory can design its own pricing structure or the region will default to the Canadian government's minimum national stringency standards (known as the Federal Backstop) (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Currently, this pricing mechanism is in place for the burning of fossil fuels such as gasoline or natural gas and for industries.

"Proceeds from the federal carbon pricing system remain in the jurisdiction where they were collected. Provinces and territories that requested the federal system receive these proceeds directly and can use them as they see fit. In other jurisdictions, the federal government delivers all proceeds to individuals, families, and businesses through payments and climate action programs. This helps make carbon pricing affordable, and enables households to make investments to increase energy efficiency and further reduce emissions" (Government of Canada, 2022). This type of governmental mitigation strategy has been shown to be effective in many other countries including India, Japan, France, Costa Rica, Canada, and the United Kingdom.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): The provinces and territories on the map of Canada are one of three colors depending on whether the federal backstop applies in full, in part or not at all. CC-BY-SA Government of Canada

Carbon Capture and Sequestration

In addition to government measures and incentives, technology can also be harnessed to mitigate climate change. One strategy for this is the use of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS). Through CCS, 80-90% of the CO₂ that would have been emitted to the atmosphere from sources such as a coal-fired power plant is instead captured and then stored deep beneath the Earth’s surface. The CO₂ is often injected and sequestered hundreds of miles underground into porous rock formations sealed below an impermeable layer, where it is stored permanently.

Scientists are also looking into the use of soils and vegetation for carbon storage potential. Proper management of soil and forest ecosystems has been shown to create additional carbon sinks for atmospheric carbon, reducing the overall atmospheric CO₂ burden. Increasing soil carbon further benefits communities by providing better-quality soil for agriculture and cultivation.

Technologies related to alternative energy sources mitigate climate change by providing people with energy not derived from the combustion of fossil fuels. Finally, simple activities such as energy conservation, choosing to walk or bike instead of driving, and disposing of waste properly are activities that, when done by large numbers of people, actively mitigate climate change by preventing carbon emissions.

Video

This 2-minute video describes using natural and artificial carbon sinks to help mitigate climate change but notes that these do not solve it. 
Question after watching: What is the ultimate solution to mitigating climate change?

Optional Activity \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Why are forests important for mitigating climate change?

1. Forests serve as a sink in the carbon cycle.
2. Trees provide building materials.
3. Trees are an important food source.
4. Leaves of trees reflect all sunlight away from the Earth.

Answer

A. Forests serve as a sink in the carbon cycle.

Climate Adaptation Strategies

Beyond mitigation, we know that climate change is already occurring as we can see and feel its effects. For this reason, it is essential to also adapt to our changing environment. This means that we must change our behaviors in response to the changing environment around us. Adaptation strategies will vary greatly by region, depending on the largest specific impacts in that area. For example, in the city of Delhi, India, a dramatic decrease in rainfall is projected over the next century. This city will likely need to implement policies and practices relating to the conservation of water like rainwater harvesting, water re-use, and increased irrigation efficiency. Rain-limited cities near oceans, such as Los Angeles, California may choose to use desalination to provide drinking water to their citizens. Desalination involves taking the salt out of seawater to make it potable. Cities with low elevations near oceans may need to implement adaptation strategies to rising sea levels, from seawalls and levees to relocation of citizens. One adaptation strategy gaining use is the creation or conservation of wetlands, which provide natural protection against storm surges and flooding.

The IPCC 6th Assessment Report (2022) outlines just some of the following global strategies for adaptation to climate change:

• Sustainable land use and urban planning
• Water use efficiency and water resource management
• Integrated coastal zone management
• Resilient power systems
• Health and health systems adaptation
• Planned relocation and resettlement
• Disaster risk management
• Climate services, including Early Warning Systems

Want to know more? Visit this site for short courses on Climate Change Adaptation Fundamentals: https://pcs.royalroads.ca/climate-change-adaptation-fundamentals-online

Indigenous Connections: Climate Action

"First Nations are seriously threatened by the climate emergency but are also essential drivers of effective climate change action. Indigenous ecological knowledge, authority and deep responsibilities to traditional lands and waters are critical to achieving world targets for greenhouse gas emission reductions and developing effective climate adaptation strategies.

The BC Assembly of First Nations (BCAFN), as part of the First Nations Leadership Council, strongly advocates for First Nations in BC to be true partners with the Provincial and Federal Governments to tackle the climate emergency. This approach is consistent with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and respectful of First Nations’ inherent Aboriginal Title, Rights and Treaty Rights.

In recognition of the climate emergency, the Union of BC Indian Chiefs (UBCIC) Chiefs Council and the BCAFN Chiefs-in-Assembly have passed resolutions mandating that the FNLC take action to respond to climate change. In addition to previous resolutions, the UBCIC passed Resolution no. 2019-02,Climate Emergency and BC First Nations Climate Emergency Plan, and the BCAFN passed Resolution no. 2019-04, Climate Emergency and Support for the Development of a BC First Nations Climate Change Strategy.

Since 2019, the FNLC has worked with First Nations in BC to develop the First Nations Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan, endorsed by Chiefs in February and March of 2022. 

The Strategy is designed to be a living and flexible document for use and implementation in different contexts. It is a means for collective advocacy on climate change while respecting the autonomy and self-determination of each Nation to address climate change on their own terms and through their own processes." (British Columbia Assembly of First Nations, 2022)

Below are just some of the adaptation measures included in the First Nations Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan:

• Ensuring long-term and stable climate funding for First Nations communities. Specifically, by establishing a BC First Nations Climate Fund.   
• Implementing effective climate data governance and management systems within and between Indigenous communities broadly. 
• Ensuring mechanisms are in place to restore the lands, waters, and ecosystems that have been impacted by human activity and climate change. This involves strengthening First Nation-led conservation efforts and implementing accountability measures for environmentally impactful human actions. 
• Effectively responding to climate-related emergencies and associated risks and impacts by strengthening First Nation-led emergency management and preparedness mechanisms and increasing collaboration between relevant entities.  
• Assessing impacts of climate change on First Nations health and wellness and developing appropriate responses to ensure long-term resiliency. As an immediate action, this involves ensuring that all First Nations have long-term and reliable access to safe and clean food and water sources. 

The Executive Summary of the Plan can be found here: https://www.bcafn.ca/sites/default/files/2022-04/Executive%20Summary%20v2.pdf 

Resource:

British Columbia Assembly of First Nations. 2022. Climate Emergency. British Columbia, Canada. Available from: https://www.bcafn.ca/priority-areas/environment/climate-emergency

B.C.’s climate is changing, and Indigenous peoples are taking action to help their communities prepare and adapt to these impacts. In this 5-minute video, some actions are highlighted including helping the Klinse-Za caribou thrive in a new environment, adapting traditional food systems at T’eqt’’aqutn’mux and Fort Nelson First Nation returning to fish camp.
Question after watching: Which of the adaptation measures listed above did you see in the video? 

​If we are to mitigate and adapt to the far-reaching impacts of climate change, we must carefully monitor and study changes in biological communities and ecosystem functioning, and how they relate to changes in climate and other stressors. While we may lose some species in a warmer world, we can also prevent many extinctions with proactive wildlife management (Unit 6.2.4). It is likely that many existing protected areas will no longer preserve some of the rare and threatened species that currently live in them, necessitating careful planning when establishing new protected areas. Even if climate change is not as severe as predicted, the steps we take now to safeguard biodiversity and our own future can only help.

Read these additional articles:

• Individual actions (via EPA)
• UN's 2022 Conference of the Parties 27th Annual Meeting (COP 27) 
• 10 Solutions to Climate Change (Scientific American)