12: Environmental Health and Toxicology
- Page ID
- 175833
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In 1854, a cholera outbreak in England began killing people within a day of symptoms appearing. Most people did not understand how the disease spread, but one physician, Dr. John Snow, suspected it was linked to contaminated water. Over about a month, he gathered evidence showing that nearly all the deaths were connected to a single well. Later, scientists discovered that the water had been contaminated by a bacterium called Vibrio cholerae, named after the disease it causes. Cholera still exists today. The World Health Organization estimates that there are between 1.3 and 4 million cases each year, with 21,000 to 143,000 deaths. In some areas, regular testing and prevention help stop outbreaks before people get sick. In other places, however, action is often taken only after an epidemic has already begun.
Figure \(\PageIndex{a}\): Original map made by John Snow in 1854. Cholera cases are highlighted in black, showing the clusters of cholera cases (indicated by stacked rectangles) in the London epidemic of 1854. The map was created in order to better understand the pattern of cholera spread in the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, which Snow would use as an example of how cholera spread via the fecal-oral route through water systems as opposed to the miasma (poisonous vapor in air) theory of disease spread. The contaminated pump is located at the intersection of Broad Street and Cambridge Street (now Lexington Street), running into Little Windmill Street. The map marks an important part of the development of epidemiology as a field, and of disease mapping as a whole. Map of the book "On the Mode of Communication of Cholera" by John Snow, originally published in 1854 by C.F. Cheffins, Lith, Southhampton Buildings, London, England. Image by Wikimedia Commons (Public Domain).
- 12.1: Types of Environmental Hazards
- This page examines environmental health, focusing on how environmental factors affect human well-being and disease prevention. It categorizes hazards into traditional and modern types, noting the greater impact of traditional hazards in developing countries. The page discusses chemical pollutants, their classifications and health risks, and specific case studies of contamination incidents.
- 12.2: Epidemiology
- This page covers the study of epidemiology, focusing on the spread and control of infectious diseases, highlighting historical figures like John Snow and Florence Nightingale. It explains disease classifications (endemic, epidemic, pandemic) and discusses transmission methods, including direct contact and vectors. Ecosystem degradation's role in disease proliferation is emphasized, linking reduced biodiversity to increased rates of illnesses like Lyme disease.
- 12.3: Infectious Diseases
- This page addresses the global health challenges posed by infectious diseases, particularly among children, influenced by malnutrition and environmental factors. It discusses significant diseases such as COVID-19, Ebola, HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis, alongside historical and current response measures. The importance of vaccination, especially mRNA vaccines, is highlighted, along with distribution challenges in developing regions.
- 12.4: Environmental Toxicology
- This page covers the key aspects of environmental toxicology, focusing on the effects of toxins on living organisms and health, including the evaluation and management of chemical hazards. It emphasizes important concepts such as bioaccumulation, biomagnification, and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which remain dangerous despite bans.
- 12.5: Case Study - The Love Canal Disaster
- This page discusses the Love Canal incident in Niagara Falls, highlighting its role in groundwater pollution and the establishment of the federal Superfund program in 1980. Originally a hydroelectric ditch, Love Canal became contaminated by urban and military waste, leading to severe health issues for residents. The incident spurred public outcry and a state of emergency declared by President Carter, resulting in cleanup efforts and ongoing challenges with hazardous waste sites in the U.S.
- 12.6: Environmental Hazard Reduction
- This page outlines the critical functions of international organizations like the WHO in global public health, including crisis response coordination, disease control programs, and advocating for clean water. It emphasizes cooperation with the CDC for disease monitoring and strategies to mitigate environmental hazards through sanitation and pollution control.
- 12.7: Data Dive- Cholera Cases Worldwide
- This page summarizes the WHO's initiatives to promote health and safety, especially for vulnerable groups, through primary care, research, and education. It highlights their tracking of disease data globally and its value to researchers, including a 20-year graph on cholera cases that prompts discussion on data interpretation and future decision-making.