12.7: Actions, Origins, and Insertions of the Skeletal Muscles
- Page ID
- 53690
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Actions, Origins, and Insertions of the Skeletal Muscles
Head and Face
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
buccinator |
pressing cheek inward, compressing air while blowing |
maxilla bone, mandible bone |
orbicularis oris |
|
depressor anguli oris |
opening the mouth, sliding the lower jaw right and left |
mandible bone |
corners of the mouth |
|
depressor labii inferioris |
drawing the lip downward |
mandible bone |
lower lip |
|
epicranius |
raising eyebrows, wrinkling forehead, pulling scalp posteriorly |
frontal belly, occipital belly, temporal bone |
skin of brow, epicranial aponeurosis |
|
lateral pterygoid |
protruding the mandible, opening the jaw, moving the mandible outward and right and left |
pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone |
mandible bone |
|
masseter (superficial & deep) |
elevating the mandible (lower jaw) |
zygomatic arch |
mandible bone |
|
medial pterygoid |
elevating the mandible, moving the mandible outward and right and left |
pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone |
mandible bone |
|
mentalis |
elevating and protruding lower lip and chin |
mandible bone |
chin |
|
nasalis |
widening the nostrils |
maxilla bone |
nasal bone |
|
orbicularis oculi |
closing the eye |
margin of orbit |
eyelid |
|
orbicularis oris |
closing the mouth, shaping lips |
maxilla bone, mandible bone |
corners of the mouth |
|
risorius |
pulling mouth laterally |
fascia of parotid salivary gland |
corners of the mouth |
|
temporalis |
elevating the mandible (lower jaw) |
temporal bone |
mandible bone |
|
zygomaticus major |
smiling/raising corners of the mouth |
zygomatic bone |
corners of the mouth (dimple region), orbicularis oris |
|
zygomaticus minor |
smiling/raising corners of the mouth |
zygomatic bone |
corners of the mouth |
Eye
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
levator palpebrae superioris |
elevating and retracting the upper eyelid |
sphenoid bone |
upper eyelid |
|
inferior oblique |
looking up and laterally (eye roll) |
maxilla bone |
eyeball (inferior, lateral) |
|
inferior rectus |
looking down (depression) |
sphenoid bone |
eyeball (inferior, medial) |
|
lateral rectus |
looking laterally (abduction) |
sphenoid bone |
eyeball (lateral, anterior) |
|
medial rectus |
looking medially (adduction) |
sphenoid bone |
eyeball (medial) |
|
superior oblique |
looking down and laterally (eye roll) |
sphenoid bone |
eyeball (superior, lateral) |
|
superior rectus |
looking up (elevation) |
sphenoid bone |
eyeball (superior, anterior) |
Anterior Neck
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
digastric |
depressing the mandible, elevating the larynx |
mandible bone, temporal bone |
hyoid bone |
|
longus capitis |
flexing the head and neck, rotating the head |
cervical vertebrae |
occipital bone |
|
mylohyoid |
elevating hyoid bone, elevating the floor of the mouth, depressing the mandible |
mandible bone |
hyoid bone |
|
omohyoid |
depressing the hyoid bone, depressing the larynx |
scapula |
hyoid bone |
|
platysma |
tensing skin of the neck, depressing the mandible, pulling down and back the lower lip |
thoracic fascia |
mandible bone, corners of mouth |
|
scalenus anterior |
flexing the neck and elevating the ribs |
cervical vertebrae |
first two ribs |
|
scalenus medius |
flexing the neck and elevating the ribs |
cervical vertebrae |
first two ribs |
|
scalenus posterior |
flexing the neck and elevating the ribs |
cervical vertebrae |
first two ribs |
|
sternocleidomastoid |
flexing the neck, rotating the neck, elevating the ribs |
sternum, clavicle |
mastoid process of temporal bone |
|
sternohyoid |
elevating the larynx |
sternum, clavicle |
hyoid bone |
|
sternothyroid |
depressing the hyoid bone, depressing the larynx |
sternum, first costal cartilage |
thyroid cartilage |
|
stylohyoid |
elevating the larynx |
styloid process of temporal bone |
hyoid bone |
|
thyrohyoid |
depressing the hyoid bone, elevating the thyroid |
thyroid cartilage, larynx |
hyoid bone |
Thorax
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
diaphragm |
increasing thoracic volume (for inhalation) |
sternum, ribs, lumbar vertebrae |
central tendinous sheet |
|
external intercostals |
elevating ribs |
inferior aspects of ribs |
superior aspects of ribs |
|
innermost intercostals |
adducting the ribs, decreasing thoracic volume (for exhalation) |
inferior aspects of ribs |
superior aspects of ribs |
|
internal intercostals |
depressing ribs |
superior aspects of ribs |
inferior aspects of ribs |
|
pectoralis major |
flexing, adducting, and medially rotating the arm at the shoulder |
sternum, clavicle |
humerus |
|
pectoralis minor |
elevating the ribs, moving scapula anterior and inferior, protracting and elevating the shoulder |
ribs |
scapula |
|
serratus anterior |
moving and fixing scapula anteriorly, protracting the shoulder |
ribs |
scapula |
Abdomen
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
external oblique |
flexing vertebral column, rotating vertebral column, compressing the abdomen |
lower ribs |
ilium, pubis, linea alba |
|
internal oblique |
flexing vertebral column, rotating vertebral column, compressing the abdomen |
lumbar vertebrae, ilium |
pubis, linea alba, lower ribs, sternum |
|
rectus abdominis |
flexing vertebral column, compressing the abdomen |
pubis |
lower ribs, sternum |
|
transversus abdominis |
compressing the abdomen |
lower ribs, ilium, lumbar vertebrae |
pubis, linea alba |
Posterior Trunk
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
iliocostalis (thoracis, lumborum) |
flexing the vertebral column laterally, extending the vertebral column |
thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, ilium, sacrum |
ribs |
|
latissimus dorsi |
extending, adducting, and medially rotating arm at the shoulder |
thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, ribs |
humerus |
|
levator scapulae |
elevating the scapula and extending the neck |
cervical vertebrae |
scapula |
|
longissimus (capitis, cervicis, thoracis) |
flexing the head and neck laterally, extending the vertebral column |
cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae |
cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae |
|
multifidus |
extending backwards, bending vertebral column laterally, rotating vertebral column, collecting sensory information |
cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae |
cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae |
|
obliquus capitis inferior |
rotating the head and the neck |
axis (C2) |
atlas (C1) |
|
obliquus capitis superior |
extending and flexing the head |
atlas (C1) |
occipital bone |
|
quadratus lumborum |
depress ribs, laterally flexes vertebral column |
ilium, iliolumbar ligament |
lumbar vertebrae, last rib |
|
rectus capitis posterior major |
extending and rotating the head |
axis (C2) |
occipital bone |
|
rectus capitis posterior minor |
extending the head and neck, collecting sensory information |
atlas (C1) |
occipital bone |
|
rhomboid (major, minor) |
elevating and adducting scapula |
cervical and thoracic vertebrae |
scapula |
|
semispinalis (capitis, cervicis, thoracis) |
extending the head and vertebral column, rotating head and vertebral column |
cervical and thoracic vertebrae |
occipital bone, cervical and thoracic vertebrae |
|
serratus posterior inferior |
depressing lower ribs, decreasing thoracic volume (for exhalation) |
thoracic and lumbar vertebrae |
lower ribs |
|
serratus posterior superior |
elevating upper ribs |
cervical and thoracic vertebrae, nuchal ligament |
upper ribs |
|
spinalis thoracis |
extending the neck, raising the neck and rotating it laterally |
thoracic vertebrae |
cervical and thoracic vertebrae |
|
splenius capitis |
extending the head, laterally flexing the head |
cervical vertebrae |
temporal bone, occipital bone |
|
splenius cervicis |
extending the head and neck, laterally flexing and rotating the head and neck |
thoracic vertebrae |
cervical vertebrae |
|
teres major |
extending and medially rotating the arm |
scapula |
humerus |
|
trapezius (lower, middle, upper) |
elevating, retracting, depressing, and upwardly rotating the scapula, extending the neck |
occipital bone, thoracic vertebrae |
scapula |
Rotator Cuff
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
infraspinatus |
laterally rotating the shoulder |
scapula |
humerus |
|
subscapularis |
medially rotating the shoulder, stabilizes shoulder joint |
scapula |
humerus |
|
supraspinatus |
abducting the shoulder, stabilizes shoulder joint |
scapula |
humerus |
|
teres minor |
laterally rotating the shoulder |
scapula |
humerus |
Arm (Shoulder to Elbow)
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
biceps brachii |
flexing the arm at the elbow |
scapula |
radius |
|
brachialis |
flexing the arm at the elbow |
humerus |
ulna |
|
coracobrachialis |
flexing and adducting the arm |
scapula |
humerus |
|
deltoid |
abducting the arm at the shoulder, flexing and extending arm at the shoulder |
clavicle, scapula |
humerus |
|
triceps brachii |
extending the arm at the elbow |
humerus, scapula |
ulna |
Forearm (Elbow to Wrist)
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
abductor pollicis longus |
abduction and extension of the thumb |
radius, ulna, interosseous membrane |
first metacarpal, trapezium |
|
anconeus |
extending the elbow |
humerus |
ulna |
|
brachioradialis |
flexing the arm at the elbow |
humerus |
radius |
|
extensor carpi radialis brevis |
extending and abducting the hand |
humerus |
third metacarpal |
|
extensor carpi radialis longus |
extending and abducting the hand |
humerus |
second metacarpal |
|
extensor carpi ulnaris |
extending and adducting the hand at the wrist |
humerus |
carpal bones |
|
extensor digiti minimi |
extends the little finger (phalanx 5) |
humerus |
fifth phalanx |
|
extensor digitorum |
extending the fingers |
humerus |
digits |
|
extensor indicis |
extending the index finger (phalanx 2), extending the wrist |
ulna, interosseous membrane |
tendon of extensor digitorum of index finger |
|
extensor pollicis brevis |
extending the thumb |
radius, ulna, interosseous membrane |
first proximal phalanx |
|
extensor pollicis longus |
extending the thumb |
radius, ulna, interosseous membrane |
first proximal phalanx |
|
flexor carpi radialis |
flexing and abducting the hand at the wrist |
humerus |
carpal bones |
|
flexor carpi ulnaris |
flexing and adducts the hand at the wrist |
humerus |
carpal bones |
|
flexor digitorum profundus |
flexing distal interphalangeal joints |
ulna, interosseous membrane |
phalanges 2-5 |
|
flexor digitorum superficialis |
flexing the wrist, flexing the phalanges 2-5 |
humerus, ulna, radius |
phalanges 2-5 |
|
flexor pollicis longus |
flexing the thumb |
first distal phalanx |
radius, interosseous membrane |
|
palmaris longus |
flexing the hand at the wrist |
humerus |
carpal bones |
|
pronator quadratus |
pronating the forearm |
ulna |
radius |
|
pronator teres |
pronating the forearm |
humerus, ulna |
radius |
|
supinator |
supinating the forearm |
humerus, ulna |
radius |
Hand
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
abductor digiti minimi |
abducting and flexing the little finger (phalanx 5) |
pisiform |
fifth phalanx |
|
abductor pollicis brevis |
abducting the thumb |
transverse carpal ligament, carpal bones |
first phalanx (thumb) |
|
abductor pollicis longus |
abduction and extension of the thumb |
radius, ulna, interosseous membrane |
first metacarpal, trapezium |
|
dorsal interossei |
abducting and flexing metacarpal-phalanx joints |
metacarpals |
proximal phalanges 2-4 |
|
extensor digiti minimi |
extends the little finger (phalanx 5) |
humerus |
fifth phalanx |
|
extensor digitorum |
extending the fingers |
humerus |
digits |
|
extensor indicis |
extending the index finger (phalanx 2), extending the wrist |
ulna, interosseous membrane |
tendon of extensor digitorum of index finger |
|
extensor pollicis brevis |
extending the thumb |
radius, ulna, interosseous membrane |
first proximal phalanx |
|
extensor pollicis longus |
extending the thumb |
radius, ulna, interosseous membrane |
first proximal phalanx |
|
flexor digiti minimi brevis |
flexing the little finger (phalanx 5) |
hamate |
fifth proximal phalanx |
|
flexor digitorum superficialis |
flexing the wrist, flexing the phalanges 2-5 |
humerus, ulna, radius |
phalanges 2-5 |
|
flexor digitorum profundus |
flexing distal interphalangeal joints |
ulna, interosseous membrane |
phalanges 2-5 |
|
flexor pollicis brevis |
abducting and flexing the thumb |
first metacarpal, carpal bones |
first proximal phalanx |
|
flexor pollicis longus |
flexing the thumb |
first distal phalanx |
radius, interosseous membrane |
|
flexor retinaculum of the wrist (a tendinous sheath) |
no actions - fibrous band over carpal bones, forms carpal tunnel |
n/a |
n/a |
|
lumbricals |
extending the proximal and distal interphalangeal joints |
tendons of flexor digitorum profundus |
phalanges 2-5, tendons of extensor digitorum |
|
opponens digiti minimi |
opposition of the fifth metacarpal |
flexor retinaculum, trapezium |
fifth metacarpal |
|
opponens pollicis |
opposition of the thumb |
flexor retinaculum, trapezium |
first metacarpal |
|
palmar interossei |
adducting and flexing metacarpal-phalanx joints |
metacarpals 2, 4, 5 |
phalanges 2, 4, 5 |
|
palmaris longus |
flexing the hand at the wrist |
humerus |
carpal bones |
Hip & Thigh
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
adductor longus |
adducting the thigh at the hip |
pubis |
femur |
|
adductor magnus |
adducting the thigh at the hip |
pubis, ischium |
femur |
|
biceps femoris |
flexing the leg at the knee, extending the thigh at the hip |
ischium, femur |
tibia, fibula |
|
gluteus maximus |
extending the thigh at the hip, rotating the thigh laterally |
ilium, sacrum, coccyx |
femur, iliotibial tract (iliotibial band) |
|
gluteus medius |
abducting the thigh at the hip, rotating the thigh medially |
ilium |
femur |
|
gluteus minimus |
abducting and medially rotating the thigh |
ilium |
femur |
|
gracilis |
adducting the thigh at the hip |
pubis |
tibia |
|
iliacus |
flexing the thigh at the hip |
ilium |
femur |
|
pectineus |
adducting the thigh, flexing and medially rotating the leg |
pubis |
femur |
|
psoas major |
flexing the thigh at the hip, flexing the vertebral column |
thoracic and lumbar vertebrae |
femur |
|
quadratus lumborum |
depress ribs, laterally flexes vertebral column |
ilium, iliolumbar ligament |
lumbar vertebrae, last rib |
|
rectus femoris |
extending the leg at the knee, flexing the thigh at the hip |
ilium |
tibia |
|
sartorius |
flexing the leg at the knee, flexing and rotating the thigh at the hip |
ilium |
tibia |
|
semimembranosus |
flexing the leg at the knee, extending the thigh at the hip |
ischium |
tibia |
|
semitendinosus |
flexing the leg at the knee, extending the thigh at the hip |
ischium |
tibia |
|
tensor fascia latae |
tensing the iliotibial band, supporting the knee |
ilium |
iliotibial tract (iliotibial band) |
|
vastus intermedius |
extending the leg at the knee |
femur |
tibia |
|
vastus lateralis |
extending the leg at the knee |
femur |
tibia |
|
vastus medialis |
extending the leg at the knee |
femur |
tibia |
Leg
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
extensor digitorum longus |
extending the toes |
tibia, fibula |
digits |
|
extensor hallucis longus |
extending hallux (big toe), dorsiflexing foot |
fibula, interosseous membrane |
first distal phalanx |
|
fibularis brevis |
plantar flexing, everting the foot |
fibula |
fifth metatarsal |
|
fibularis longus |
plantarflexing |
tibia, fibula |
first metatarsal |
|
fibularis tertius |
dorsiflexing the foot, eversion of the foot |
fibula, interosseous membrane |
fifth metatarsal |
|
flexor digitorum longus |
flexing the toes |
tibia |
digits |
|
flexor hallucis longus |
flexing hallux (big toe) |
fibula |
big toe |
|
gastrocnemius |
plantarflexing |
femur |
calcaneus |
|
popliteus |
flexing and rotating the left medially, laterally rotates thigh |
femur, lateral meniscus |
tibia |
|
soleus |
plantarflexing |
femur, tibia |
calcaneus |
|
tibialis anterior |
dorsiflexing the foot at the ankle, inverting the foot |
tibia |
first metatarsal |
|
tibialis posterior |
inverting and plantar flexing the food, stabilizing longitudinal foot arch |
tibia, fibula, interosseous membrane |
tarsals, metatarsals 2-4 |
Foot
|
Muscle |
Action |
Origin |
Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
abductor digiti minimi |
abducting and flexing the small toe (phalanx 5) |
calcaneus |
fifth proximal phalanx |
|
adductor hallucis |
abducting and flexing hallux (big toe) |
calcaneus, flexor retinaculum |
first proximal phalanx |
|
dorsal interossei |
abducting and flexing middle toes at metatarsophalangeal joints, extending middle toes at interphalangeal joints |
metatarsals |
phalanges |
|
extensor digitorum brevis |
extending toes 2-5 |
calcaneus, extensor retinaculum |
first proximal phalanx, extensor expansions on phalanges 2-5 |
|
extensor digitorum longus |
extending the toes |
tibia, fibula |
digits |
|
extensor hallucis brevis |
extending hallux (big toe) |
calcaneus |
first proximal phalanx |
|
extensor hallucis longus |
extending hallux (big toe), dorsiflexing foot |
fibula, interosseous membrane |
first distal phalanx |
|
fibularis longus |
plantar flexing |
tibia, fibula |
first metatarsal |
|
fibularis tertius |
dorsiflexing the foot, eversion of the foot |
fibula, interosseous membrane |
fifth metatarsal |
|
flexor accessorius |
flexing interphalangeal joints |
calcaneus, long plantar ligament |
tendons of flexor digitorum longus |
|
flexor digiti minimi brevis |
flexing the small toe (phalanx 5) |
Fifth metatarsal, tendon sheath of fibularis longus |
fifth proximal phalanx |
|
flexor digitorum brevis |
flexing toes 2-4 |
calcaneus |
middle phalanges 2-4 |
|
flexor digitorum longus |
flexing the toes |
tibia |
digits |
|
flexor hallucis brevis |
flexing hallux (big toe) |
tarsal bones |
first proximal phalanx |
|
flexor hallucis longus |
flexing hallux (big toe) |
fibula |
big toe |
|
lumbricals |
extending toes 2-5 at interphalangeal joints, flexing the small toes at metatarsophalangeal joints |
tendons of flexor digitorum longus |
proximal phalanges 2-5 |
|
opponens digiti minimi |
adducting and opposing the small toe (phalanx 5) |
fifth metatarsal, long plantar ligament |
fifth metatarsal |
|
plantar interossei |
abducting toes 3-5, flexing proximal phalanges, extending distal phalanges |
metatarsals |
phalanges |
|
tibialis anterior |
dorsiflexing the foot at the ankle, inverting the foot |
tibia |
first metatarsal |
|
tibialis posterior |
inverting and plantar flexing the food, stabilizing longitudinal foot arch |
tibia, fibula, interosseous membrane |
tarsals, metatarsals 2-4 |
Attributions
- "Anatomy and Physiology" by J. Gordon Betts et al., OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0
- "Anatomy and Physiology I Lab" by Victoria Vidal is licensed under CC BY 4.0
- "BIOL 250 Human Anatomy Lab Manual SU 19" by Yancy Aquino, Skyline College is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0