4.7.7: Fibrillar Proteins

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Learning Goals (ChaptGPT o1, 1/26/25)

After working through this section, students should be able to:

1. Define fibrillar (fibrous) proteins and distinguish them from globular and membrane proteins based on structure, solubility, and biological function.

2. Describe structural motifs common in fibrillar proteins (e.g., α-keratin coiled coils, collagen triple helices) and explain how repetitive sequences give rise to elongated architectures.

3. Explain the molecular basis of β-sheet formation in fibrillar proteins, including hydrogen bonding patterns and side-chain packing, and relate these to mechanical properties like strength and elasticity.

4. Compare and contrast classic fibrillar proteins (e.g., keratin, collagen) with spider silk proteins, emphasizing the role of sequence composition and hierarchical assembly.

5. Describe how spider silk proteins (spidroins) transition from soluble precursors to solid fibers, including the roles of:

   • intrinsically disordered protein (IDP) domains,

   • multivalent side-chain interactions (e.g., Arg–Tyr cation–π contacts),

   • liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS),

   • mechanical alignment and dehydration in the spinning duct.

6. Summarize the distinct roles of phase separation vs. β-sheet crystallization in silk fiber formation, and explain why silk represents a unique case among fibrillar proteins.

7. Compare fibril formation mechanisms in functional materials (spider silk) with pathological β-sheet assemblies (e.g., amyloid fibrils), identifying fundamental differences and shared motifs.

Introduction

Most proteins have a roughly spherical or "globular" tertiary structure. However, many proteins form elongated fibrils with properties such as elasticity: the protein deforms when a force is applied and returns to its original state. Elastic molecules must store energy (go to a higher energy state) when the elongating force is applied, and the energy must be released on return to the equilibrium resting structure. Structures that can store and release energy when subjected to a force have resiliency. Proteins that stretch with an applied force include elastin (in blood vessels, lungs, and skin where elasticity is required), resilin in insects (which stretches on wing beating), silk (found in spider web and whose partial structure we showed in 4.2), and fibrillin (found in most connective tissues and cartilage). Some proteins have high resiliency (90% in elastin and resilin), while others are only partially resilient (35% in silk, which has a tensile strength approaching that of stainless steel).

In contrast to rubber, which has an amorphous structure that imparts elasticity, these proteins, although they have dissimilar amino acid sequences, appear to share a common structure inferred from their DNA sequences. In some (such as fibrillin), the protein has a folded beta-sheet domain that unfolds like a stretched accordion. Others, like elastin and spider silk, have a beta-sheet domain and other secondary structures (alpha-helices and beta turns) along with Pro and Ala repetitions. Scientists are studying these structures to help synthesize new elastic and resilient products.

Elongated structures characterize fibrous proteins. These proteins often aggregate into filaments or bundles, forming structural scaffolds in biological systems. Within animals, the two most abundant fibrous protein families are collagen and α-keratin. Let's start our exploration of fibrillar proteins with these.

Collagen

Collagen is the most abundant protein in mammals, making 25% to 35% of the whole-body protein content. It is predominantly found in the extracellular space of various connective tissues. Collagen has a unique quaternary structure: three protein strands wound together to form a triple helix. It is mostly found in fibrous tissues such as tendons, ligaments, and skin.

Depending upon the degree of mineralization, collagen tissues may be rigid (bone), compliant (tendon), or have a gradient from rigid to compliant (cartilage). It is also abundant in corneas, blood vessels, the gut, intervertebral discs, and dentin. In muscle tissue, it serves as a major component of the endomysium. Collagen constitutes one to two percent of muscle tissue and accounts for 6% of the weight of strong, tendinous muscles. The fibroblast is the most common cell that creates collagen. Gelatin, used in food and industry, is collagen that has been irreversibly hydrolyzed. In addition, partially and fully hydrolyzed collagen powders are used as dietary supplements. Collagen also participates in many binding interactions with target proteins, in addition to its structural role.

The name collagen comes from the Greek (kólla), meaning "glue," and the suffix -gen, denoting "producing." This refers to the compound's early use in boiling the skin and tendons of horses and other animals to make glue.

Over 90% of the collagen in the human body is type I. However, as of 2011, 28 types of collagen had been identified and described, divided into several groups based on the structures they form. The five most common types are:

• Type I: skin, tendon, vasculature, organs, bone (the main component of the organic part of bone)
• Type II: cartilage (the main collagenous component of cartilage)
• Type III: reticulate (the main component of reticular fibers), commonly found alongside type I
• Type IV: forms basal lamina, the epithelium-secreted layer of the basement membrane
• Type V: cell surfaces, hair, and placenta

Let's focus on Type I collagen, which has an unusual amino acid composition and sequence:

• Glycine is found in almost every third residue.
• Proline makes up about 17% of collagen.
• Collagen contains many hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine, which are formed by post-translational modifications catalyzed by different enzymes, both of which require vitamin C as a cofactor.
• Some hydroxylysines are glycosylated, mostly with disaccharides.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) shows the post-translational hydroxylations of lysine and proline.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Post-translational hydroxylations of lysine and proline

Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy, a serious and painful disease in which defective collagen prevents the formation of strong connective tissue. Gums deteriorate and bleed, with loss of teeth; skin discolors, and wounds do not heal. Before the 18^th century, this condition was notorious among long-duration military expeditions, particularly naval ones. Participants were deprived of foods containing vitamin C. Many bacteria and viruses secrete virulence factors, such as the enzyme collagenase, which destroys collagen or interferes with its production.

Collagen has many (GXY)_n repeats, where G is glycine (Gly), and X and Y are frequently proline (Pro) and hydroxyproline (Hyp). Three strands of collagen self-associate to form a triple-stranded helix with 10 GXY triplets in 3 complete turns of the helix. Others suggest seven triplet units in 2 turns of the stands. Note that the helix of each strand in the triple helix is not an alpha helix and has different phi/psi angles. Each strand is "frameshifted" by one amino acid, resulting in a staggered arrangement of the individual strands and helices. The glycines are buried along the central axis, so no essential hydrophobic core exists. The X and Y amino acids are solvent-exposed. All the other side chains, both hydrophobic and hydrophilic, are likewise exposed to solvent. Hydrogen bonding occurs between the amide hydrogen of the peptide bond of Gly and the carbonyl O of an X amino acid in another chain.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) shows an interactive iCn3D model of a triple helical collagen-like peptide (4Z1R). The main chain atoms, shown in CPK colors, form hydrogen bonds with neighboring chains. The side chains are colored based on the three chains (blue, brown, and magenta). Two sets of Pro-HPro-Gly repeats are labeled.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Triple helical collagen-like peptide (4Z1R). (Copyright; author via source).
Click the image for a popup or use this external link: https://structure.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/icn3d/share.html?TCrji1wPhekypJtc6

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Recent Updates:  September 16, 2024 

Given its widespread nature and its role in the structural stability of organisms, collagen is a very stable biomolecule. It is so stable that traces of it have even been found in the fossil remains of dinosaurs like T. rex from 80 million years ago and a Lufengosaurus from 195 million years ago.  The peptide bond is thermodynamically unstable in an aqueous solution, so collagen, like other proteins, would be expected to hydrolyze over a period of hundreds of years.  Its unique repetitive sequence, aggregation into a triple helix, and biological environment (such as in bone) help protect it from degradation, but not for millions of years.  There must be another previously overlooked structural feature that inhibits its hydrolysis at the electrophilic carbonyl of its peptide bond.

To investigate this extreme stability, the resistance of small nitrophenyl esters of N-acylated prolines in both cis and trans conformations to hydrolysis was studied in an aqueous solution using NMR.  Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) below shows the structure of these cis and trans isomers.  

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Hydrolysis of N-acylated-Pro-p-nitrophenol esters

The equilibrium constant (K_cis/trans) for the cis ↔ trans isomers increases with R group size.  Remember, for X-Y peptide bonds in dipeptides, the Kcis/trans is about 1000 (trans favored), but for X-Pro, it's around 4.  However, in collagen, all X-Pro bonds are trans to enable triple helix formation. 

The kinetics of spontaneous hydrolysis in solution (Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8, 0.1 M NaCl, and 1% DMSO to increase solubility) were studied by measuring A_{400 nm} on the release of the nitrophenolate anion.  There is a remarkable resistance to hydrolysis in the trans isomer that can best be accounted for by an interaction between a nonbonded (n) electron pair on the acyl group (corresponding to the X C=O in an XY dipeptide sequence) and the C=O of the ester. This likely results from some stabilizing electron donation from the n orbital of the O to the pi* antibonding C=O orbital.  In hydrolysis, water or OH^- would donate a lone pair.  This becomes disallowed in the sterically restricted trans form since only two electrons can occupy an orbital (in this case, the pi* antibonding orbital).  The authors describe this as an example of the Pauli Exclusion principle (only 2 electrons per orbital), which you encountered in introductory chemistry classes.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\) below shows representations of the interactions and an energy diagram from Chapter 2.4 (Solubility in an aqueous world - noncovalent interactions in depth) to illustrate these points.  

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\):  Left,  Interactions between a lone pair of electrons (n) on an adjacent group and the pi^* MO of an adjacent C=O.  Right,  Relative energy levels of molecular orbitals (not to scale). https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshel...c_Spectroscopy

In the triple collagen helix, the n→ pi* interactions are on the same strand, while stabilizing hydrogen bonds are between donors and acceptors on adjacent strands, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) below.

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\):  Interactions in a collagen triple helix.

(A) Crystal structure of a (Pro-Hyp-Gly)n triple helix. The three strands are white, gray, or black. In each strand, peptide-bond carbons are yellow (Pro-Hyp), orange (Hyp-Gly), or red (Gly-Pro). The image was generated with PyMOL using PDB entry 1v7h.59. 

(B) n→π*  Interactions and hydrogen bonds within the main chain of a collagen triple helix. Carbons are colored as in panel A. Interstrand hydrogen bonds polarize the shaded peptide bonds.  Jinyi Yang, Volga Kojasoy, Gerard J. Porter, and Ronald T. Raines.  ACS Central Science Article ASAP.  DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.4c00971.  Sept 2024.  DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.4c00971.  CC-BY 4.0

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α-Keratin

α-keratin is the key structural element of hair, nails, horns, claws, hooves, and the outer layer of skin. Due to its tightly wound structure, it can function as one of the strongest biological materials and has various uses in mammals, from predatory claws to hair for warmth.

Hanukoglu and Fuchs determined the first α-keratin sequences. These sequences revealed two distinct but homologous keratin families: Type I and Type II keratins. There are 54 keratin genes in humans, 28 of which code for type I and 26 for type II. Type I proteins are enriched in Asp and Glu amino acids, while type II proteins contain more basic amino acids, such as lysine. This differentiation is especially important in α-keratins because, in forming a keratin dimer, the coiled-coil requires that one protein coil be type I and the other type II. Some pairs of types I and II are particularly complementary within each organism. For example, in human skin, K5, a type II α-keratin, pairs primarily with K14, a type I α-keratin, to form the α-keratin complex of the epidermis layer of cells in the skin.

Coiled-coil dimers then assemble into a tetramer of two staggered coiled-coil dimers. Two tetramers can then pack together to form an elongated protofilament, a very stable, left-handed superhelical structure, as shown in the figure below. The keratin filaments stay associated through hydrophobic interactions between apolar residues along the keratin's helical segments. This is illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\).

Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): Assembly of Keratin Fibers. Wiki lectures. https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Indivi...e_and_function

Initially, two keratin monomers (A) form a coiled-coil dimer structure (B). Two coiled-coil dimers join to form a staggered tetramer (C); next, the tetramers start to join together (D), ultimately forming a sheet of eight tetramers (E). The sheet of eight tetramers is then twisted into a left-handed helix, forming the final intermediate filament (E). An electron micrograph of the intermediate filament is shown in the upper left-hand corner.

Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\) shows an interactive iCn3D model of a dimer of Type I alpha-keratin (magenta backbone) and Type II (blue backbone) (6JFV).

Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\): Dimer of a Type I and Type II alpha-keratin backbones (6JFV). (Copyright; author via source).
Click the image for a popup or use this external link: https://structure.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/i...g3L3sQh9dj5pw8

Acidic (red) side chains (Asp and Glu) and basic (blue) side chains (Lys) can be seen projecting away from the dimer. Both A and B chains have negative and positive side chains. This dimer's A (more acidic) chain has 5 Lys, 7 Arg, 1 Asp, and 16 Glu side chains, for a net charge of +12 -17 = -5. The dimer's B (more basic) chain has 8 Lys, 9 Arg, 5 Asp, and 12 Glu side chains for a net charge of +17 -17 = 0. It is more basic, with 17 lysine and arginine side chains, than the A chain, with 12. Depending on their 3D orientation, they could present a positive face to the more negative monomer in the dimer.

Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\) shows an interactive iCn3D model of a spacefill model of the dimer. Note that a significant fraction of the nonpolar side chains are pointed inward between the two monomers and are much less exposed to solvent.

Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\): Dimer of a Type I and Type II alpha-keratin backbones in spacefill (6JFV). (Copyright; author via source).
Click the image for a popup or use this external link: https://structure.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/i...uyJrw28mZ6x5h7

Elastin

As its name implies, the protein confers elasticity in target structures such as connective tissue and blood vessels. It has low-complexity hydrophobic domains, and the protein is cross-linked to form larger structures. It contains repeating hydrophobic amino acid sequences, mostly valine, proline, glycine, and alanine, and mimetics of the repeating structure (LGGVG)6 have been studied. This protein also displays significant disorder.

Resilin

The following description of resilin is taken directly from an article under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Balu, R., Dutta, N.K., Dutta, A.K. et al. Resilin-mimetics as a smart biomaterial platform for biomedical applications. Nat Commun 12, 149 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20375-x

Resilin-Mimetics

Native elastomeric proteins are biomaterials that natural selection has perfected over billions of years to act as molecular springs in a wide range of biological systems, driving unique functions. Among native proteins, resilin is considered one of the most efficient elastic proteins. It is a structural protein mainly found in insect exoskeletons and exhibits outstanding resilience and fatigue life. The first description of resilin was made in the 1960s as a rubber-like protein observed in the locust wing hinge and the dragonfly tendon. Early studies on the composition and structure of resilin revealed that the protein contains about 66% hydrophobic residues (much lower than in elastin), with about 45% proline and glycine combined. In their native state, resilins exist as di- and trityrosine crosslinked hydrogels and exhibit highly amorphous structures as observed by X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy. During biosynthesis, pro-resilins (uncrosslinked) are secreted from the apical surface of the epidermal cells into the subcuticular space, where an enzyme-mediated process crosslinks them to form hydrogels. Over the next three decades, resilin was also identified in many other insects and arthropods, including copepods, reduviidae, and moths. In arthropods, resilin is largely involved in several different functions, including the flexibility and deformability of membranous cuticle and joint systems, the storage of elastic energy in locomotion (jumping, flying, etc.) and catapulting systems, the adaptability to surface topography by multiple contact attachment, and prey catching systems and the reduction of fatigue and damage in feeding and traumatic reproductive system.

The amino acid sequence of resilin was first identified in the early 2000s from the CG15920 gene segment of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. This opened up new opportunities for the synthesis and development of biomimetic resilins. The CG15920 gene comprises N-terminal (exon-1), C-terminal (exon-3), and the middle chitin-binding (exon-2) domains, where exon-1 and exon-3 consist of 18 and 11 copies of consensus amino acid sequences: GGRPSDSYGAPGGGN and GYSGGRPGGQDLG, respectively. The first recombinant pro-resilin or resilin-like polypeptide (RLP), namely Rec1-resilin (encoded from the exon-1 of CG15920 gene) was synthesized in mid-2000s as a water soluble polypeptide expressed in the bacteria Escherichia coli. The synthesized pro-resilin was photo-crosslinked (dityrosine) using a ruthenium-persulfate crosslinking system to form hydrogels, which exhibited 97% resilience, outperforming native resilin dissected from dragonfly tendon (92%), natural elastin (90%), and synthetic polybutadiene rubber (80%)

The synthesized RLPs have several advantages over other elastomeric polypeptides, such as elastin-like polypeptides (ELPs), silk-like polypeptides (SLPs), and collagen-like polypeptides (CLPs). These include:

• Unique sequences rich in uncharged, polar amino acids and devoid of canonical hydrophobic residues, and contain high proportions of glycine- and proline-rich segments.
• Average negative hydropathy index.
• Intrinsically disordered protein structure with rapidly interchangeable conformational ensemble in physiological conditions.
• Multi-stimuli (pH, temperature, ions, mechanical stress, other molecules, etc.) responsiveness, including dual-phase transition behavior (existence of both upper critical solution temperature, UCST, and lower critical solution temperature, LCST).
• Low stiffness, high extensibility, outstanding resilience, and excellent fatigue life.
• No inflammatory response.

Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\) shows possible transitions in the resilin protein that demonstrate such resiliency.

Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\): Transitions in the resilin protein By MTLE4470 grp10 ss - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/inde...curid=58499811

Given its disordered nature, no PDB structures of resilin are available.

Fibrinogen

This very large molecule is a hexamer of three monomers (Aα, Bβ, and γ), each present in two copies (α₂β₂γ₂). Disulfide bonds connect one structural unit (αβγ) with another. When two fibrinopeptides (FpA and FpB) are cleaved from the amino ends of the α and β chains by the clotting enzyme thrombin, small structural "knobs" form that bind to "holes" on another fibrinogen, causing the formation of large fibrils of fibrin clots. Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\) shows an interactive iCn3D model of human fibrinogen (3ghg). The "floppy" parts of the alpha chain (αC region) and FpA and FpB peptides are not shown as they were not resolved (due to their disorder) in the crystal structure.

Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\): Human fibrinogen (3ghg). (Copyright; author via source).
Click the image for a popup or use this external link: https://structure.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/i...S3dXzzsrkujKZ8

It is a very long, flexible molecule. The alpha chains are magenta and light green, the beta chains are dark blue and gray, and the gamma chains are brown and orange. Note that the helical chains are alpha-helical for this molecule.

Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\) shows the domain structure and hints at the flexibility of this long molecule, which is required to form a fibrous mesh clot as well as to be accessible to an enzyme, plasmin, which cleaves fibrin clots, facilitating their removal. The Aα, Bβ, and γ are shown in blue, red, and green, respectively. Carbohydrates are shown in orange in the space-filling model (b).

Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\): Domain Structure of FibrinogenKöhler S, Schmid F, Settanni G (2015) The Internal Dynamics of Fibrinogen and Its Implications for Coagulation and Adsorption. PLoS Comput Biol 11(9): e1004346. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004346. Creative Commons Attribution License.

The coiled coils are mostly alpha-helical. The central E region is where the N-terminal ends of all of the fibrinogen chains are located and where the fibrinopeptides A (FpA, 16 residues) and B (FpB, 14 residues) are located, where they will be cleaved by thrombin in clot formation. The C-termini of the chains are located at the distal D region, which houses two C domains. After cleavage of the fibrinopeptides, conformational changes occur in the central E region to produce the "knobs" A (with starting sequence Gly-Pro-Arg) and B (Gly-His-Arg). These knobs bind through noncovalent interactions corresponding to "holes" a and b at the distal D regions of another fibrinogen to form a dimer and, subsequently, a fibrin clot.

Myosin Heavy Chain

Myosin is a chief component of muscles and, in complex with actin and other proteins, allows muscle contraction. It has two distinct domains and an elongated, rod-like tail with 28-residue repeats of 4 heptapeptides, characteristic of alpha-helical proteins that form coiled-coil quaternary structures. Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\) shows the domain structure of human myosin heavy chain 1. The orange represents the motor domain of the protein, which binds and hydrolyzes ATP, providing the free energy that powers muscle contraction.

Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\): Domain structure of human myosin

Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\) shows a cartoon of myosin heavy chains (blue) associated with myosin light chains and how they interact with actin in the actinomyosin complex in striated muscle cells. The motor domain also binds actin filaments. Simplistically, the thick myosin filaments can slide back and forth in muscle contraction and extension.

Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\): Myosin-Actin Complex. Lee, L.A., Karabina, A., Broadwell, L.J. et al. The ancient sarcomeric myosins found in specialized muscles. Skeletal Muscle 9, 7 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13395-019-0192-3Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Myosin can exist in two major conformations. One is the "6S" (extended tail) form that assembles into myosin filaments, which interact with actin as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\) to transduce the chemical energy from ATP hydrolysis into mechanical forces and filament sliding. The other is the "10S" conformation, which is folded on itself. The heads interact with each other and the tail. All necessary steps (ATP cleavage, filament assembly, actin activation) required for actin/myosin-mediated contraction are inhibited in this compact form.

Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\) shows an interactive iCn3D model of an inactive (nonextended) conformation of myosin heavy chain (6xe9) from smooth muscle. The long cyan and green chains are the myosin (II) heavy chains from smooth muscle.

Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\): Inactive (nonextended) conformation of myosin heavy chain (6xe9). (Copyright; author via source).
Click the image for a popup or use this external link: https://structure.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/i...thwKbyQQ5ezB96

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Recent Updates:  February 2026

Spider Silk -    an unusual fibrillar protein

Silk from both spiders and silk worms is a fibrillar protein. In its final state, silk has long, aligned protein chains that form extensive β-sheets, which in turn form fibrils, which in turn form fibers that are insoluble and extremely strong. However, before the spider spins its web, the protein exists in a soluble form called a spidroin (250–400 kD), which forms a family. They aggregate together into a liquid condensate in which the spidroins are intrinsically disordered (a topic we discussed in Chapter 4.6: Intrinsically Disordered Proteins) and are stored in the silk gland.  The process of liquid condensate formation is another example of liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) or liquid-liquid demixing, a topic we have covered in previous sections (1.1: Cellular Foundations and 4.10: Protein Aggregates - Amyloids, Prions and Intracellular Granules).  Potassium phosphate promotes LLPS.  LLPS, along with changes in pH and ion exchanges in the LLPS, lead to the formation of the β-sheets fibrils, which self-associate into macroscopic fibers.  This drastic conformational change during spinning is an amazing and unusual example of a rapid conversion of an IDP into a fibril-forming protein with extensive organization.  

The structure of a typical spider web is shown below in Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\).  The dragline is the strongest.

 

Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\):  Schematic representation of different types of spider silk and their role in spider webs (compiled according to Vollrath and Knight 2001). Ramezaniaghdam Maryam , Nahdi Nadia D. , Reski Ralf.  Recombinant Spider Silk: Promises and Bottlenecks. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 10, 2022.  https://www.frontiersin.org/journals...oe.2022.835637.  Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). 

The mechanical properties of different types of spider silk and some commonly used fibers are shown in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) below.

Materials	Strength [MPa]	Strain [%]	Toughness [MJ m^−3]	Young's modulus [GPa]
MA silk (L. venusta)	1469	23.3	151	10.6
B. mori silk	500–600	15.0–18.0	70–80	7
Elastin	2	150	1.6	0.0011
Tendon collagen	150	12	7.5	1.5
Kevlar 49	3600	2.7	50	130
Nylon 66	750–950	–	80	2–3.6
Carbon fiber	4000	1.3	25	300
High‐tensile steel	1500	0.8	6	200

Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): The mechanical properties of different types of spider silk and some commonly used fibers.  Li J, Li S, Huang J, Khan AQ, An B, Zhou X, Liu Z, Zhu M. Spider Silk-Inspired Artificial Fibers. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2022 Feb;9(5):e2103965. doi: 10.1002/advs.202103965. Epub 2021 Dec 19. PMID: 34927397; PMCID: PMC8844500.  CC BY 4.0

Here is the meaning of the terms:

• Strength:  How much pulling force the fiber can withstand before it breaks
• strain:  How much the fiber stretches before breaking
• toughness:  How much energy the fiber can absorb before breaking
• Young's modulus:  How stiff the fiber is (higher value stiffer, lower value more flexible)

We'll explore dragline silk from the black widow spider.  The dragline  (the strongest type of silk fiber) is predominantly composed of two types of spidroins called major ampullate silk protein (MaSP).  The two types are MaSp1 (most abundant) and MaSp2.  These proteins have stretches of repeating poly-alanine residues that form crystalline beta-sheet fibers.  They have many glycine-rich repeats of the sequence GGX, where X is Ala, Gln, and to a lesser degree Tyr, Arg, and Ser.  These are between the poly-Ala regions.   Tyr is found in all the glycine-rich regions.  The motif RGG is found in every other Gly-rich region in MaSP1, while RQQ is found in the MaSP2 spidroin repeats.  

Detailed structural characterization of the protein before and after spinning is complicated.  Structural information from NMR spectroscopy of the MaSP1 before spinning indicates it is intrinsically disordered, with little secondary structure. Molecular structure predictions show that a MaSP forms a micelle-like structure with a buried hydrophobic core enriched in poly-Ala, with the more hydrophilic side chains (such as Arg and the hydroxyl group of Tyr) on the surface and solvent-exposed.

In the spun fiber, the poly-Ala tract forms a β-sheet crystalline structure.  The Gly-rich are generally disordered.  Given their high Gly content, they are likely in reverse turns (for GPGXX turns in MaSp2) and tight 3₁₀-helical (for GGX).  

In general, the spidroin proteins can exist in a variety of states and undergo many transitions from the soluble monomer to the insoluble β-sheet crystalline fiber.  These are described in Table \(\PageIndex{2}\) below.

Protein State	aggregation state	changes in transition to next state
1.  Soluble spidroin "dope" in silk gland reservoir	monomer, "micelle" like in that poly-Ala generally buried; Gly, Arg, Tyr mostly exposed; mainly disordered; neutral pH, NaCl elevated, high protein concentration	increase phosphate (H2PO4^-); ion exchange with NaCl; phosphate interacts with Arg^+, displacing H2O; increase Arg–Tyr cation–π interactions
2.  Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS)	Proteins are very condensed but still hydrated with enhanced Arg-Tyr noncovalent interactions; little β-sheet, mostly disordered. Many weak side-chain interactions between monomers (multivalency)	LLPS moves through the spinning duct, leading to pH drop, shear forces, removal of water,  chain alignment, β-sheet nucleation, and β-sheet formation
3.  Fiber	Poly(Ala) hydrogen bonding drives β-sheet nanocrystals forming rigid domains; glycine-rich more flexible and elastic; Arg, Try are at β-sheet interfaces

Table \(\PageIndex{2}\): Structures and transition in the spidron protein on fiber formation.

Recent structural work using NMR spectroscopy and structural predictions using Google ColabFold (v1.5.5 - AlphaFold2 using MMseqs -2) for the prespun silk and AlphaFold3  for the spun silk has been performed on shorter fragments and multimers (hexamers and trimers) of the fragments of Latrodectus hesperus (Western Blackwidow spider) MaSp1.   The structures described in the Table above are illustrated below.

Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\) below shows the sequence of the 116-residue MaSp1 fragment from Latrodectus hesperus (Western Blackwidow spider) used in structural predictions and molecular dynamic simulations, with poly(Ala) (red), Arg (purple), and Tyr (blue) highlighted.  It represents a typical repeat within the protein sequence.

1AAAAAAAAGGAGQGGQGGYGQGGYGQGGAGQGGAAAAAAAAGGAGQGGYGRGGAGQGG58

59AAAAAGAGQGGYGGQGAGQGGAGAAAAAAAAGGAGQGGQGGYGRGGYGQGGAGQGGAG116

Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\): sequence of the 116-residue MaSp1 fragment from Latrodectus hesperus (Western Blackwidow spider)

First, let's look at the simulated/predicted structure of the soluble (before spinning) disordered MaSp1 116-mer fragment in NaCl.  It's shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\) below (left panel).  It looks similarly globular in KH₂PO₄.

Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\):  Left:  Representative structures from simulations run with NaCl.  Right: Example of a phosphate-bridged Arg–Tyr interaction observed in KH₂PO₄. H.R. Johnson, K. Chalek, N. Elathram, A.T. Chau, A.R. Domingo, J.E. Aldana, H. Nguyen, A. de Loera, B.A. Duarte, L. Shapakidze, D. Onofrei, G.T. Debelouchina, C.D. Lorenz, & G.P. Holland, Arg–Tyr cation–π interactions drive phase separation and β-sheet assembly in native spider dragline silk, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 122 (52) e2523198122, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2523198122 (2025).  Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CC BY).

Google CoLabFold seed structure: Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\)

Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\): Google CoLabFold seed structure

To view the AlphaFold3 model below in iCn3D:

1.  Download this PNG appendable file. This might download as an image.  If so, then resave the png file again using right-click on PC.  2. Open iCn3D.  3.  File, Open File, iCn3D png appendable,  and select the downloaded file on your computer (long load time)

 

 

The right panel shows a key interaction between the phosphate anion and proximal Arg and Tyr side chains.  Molecular dynamics simulations reveal that phosphate promotes Arg–Tyr interactions and disrupts Arg–Ala contacts, freeing Ala for eventual β-sheet fiber formation.

Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\)  shows that AlphaFold3 models with β-sheet fiber architecture of a hexamer of the 116mer with Arg–Tyr cation–π interactions at structured–unstructured interfaces. 

To view the AlphaFold3 model below in iCn3D: 1.  Download this PNG appendable file. This might download as an image.  If so, then resave the png file again using right-click on PC.  2. Open iCn3D.  3.  File, Open File, iCn3D png appendable,  and select the downloaded file on your computer (long load time)

Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\):  Left - (A) Hexamer AlphaFold3 model of a 116-residue MaSp1 hexamer repeat predicts highly ordered β-sheet architecture, with poly(Ala) regions forming the β-sheet core (blue), and Arg (orange) and Tyr (purple) side chains positioned near β-sheet interfaces.   H.R. Johnson et al., ibid.

Right: iCn3D AlphaFold3 model of a hexamer of 116-residue MaSP1.  Two monomers are shown in sticks to illustrate the interchain hydrogen bonds (dotted lines).  The Tyr and Arg side chains are both shown in cyan.

Figure \(\PageIndex{16}\) below shows AlphaFold3 models of the β-sheet fiber architecture of a trimer of the 43mer with Arg–Tyr cation–π interactions at structured–unstructured interfaces.

To view the AlphaFold3 model below in iCn3D: 1.  Download this PNG appendable file. This might download as an image.  If so, then resave the png file again using right-click on PC.  2. Open iCn3D.  3.  File, Open File, iCn3D png appendable,  and select the downloaded file on your computer (long load time)

Figure \(\PageIndex{16}\): H.R. Johnson, et al., ibid.

Panel B:  Trimer model of a 43-residue sequence containing Arg–Tyr motifs exhibits short β-sheets in poly(Ala) regions (purple). Arg (red) and Tyr (green) residues are located at β-sheet interfaces, with Arg side chains positioned near Tyr aromatic rings. The average distance between the Tyr Y19 ring (center-of-mass) and Arg R21 Nη atoms is ~5.7 Å.

Panel C:  All-atom CHARMM36m MD simulation (200 ns) preserves poly(Ala) β-sheet structure in the trimer assembly, but reveals noteworthy sidechain disorder in interfacial Arg and Tyr residues.

Right Panel:  iCn3D AlphaFold3 Model of 43-mer  model.  Tyrosine and arginine are shown in sticks and labeled.  Two gold dotted lines show the ion-pi interactions between the adjacent Arg and Tyr on the same chain.  The red dotted line between adjacent aromatic rings of the tyrosines indicated pi-pi interactions.  If you open the iCn3D model and measure the distance between the Arg and Try side chains, it is too long (around 8 Å) for an actual ion-pi interaction.  The AlphaFold3 program used to make the program returned the structure shown.  The manuscript shows that the distance is closer to 5.7 Å, and in MD simulations, sometimes closer.

We will discuss another type of protein, the β-amyloid proteins (Chapter 4.10: Protein Aggregates - Amyloids, Prions and Intracellular Granules) that form insoluble aggregates enriched in beta-sheets.  They differ from silk, for example, in many ways. The amyloid protein monomers are soluble but are typically enriched in alpha-structure.  On misfolding (which can be caused by mutations), as the initial form is metastable.  The misfolded or monomers induced to misfold aggregate to form fibrils with an interchain beta-sheet structure. 

Summary

This chapter explores the diverse structures and functions of elastic and fibrous proteins, which play critical roles in maintaining the mechanical integrity and specialized functions of tissues in multicellular organisms. Although many proteins adopt a roughly spherical (globular) structure, a significant subset forms elongated, fibrous structures that provide elasticity, resilience, and strength. These proteins not only support structural integrity but also enable dynamic responses to mechanical forces.

Elastic Proteins: Storage and Release of Energy

• Elasticity and Resiliency:
  Elastic proteins such as elastin, resilin, silk, and fibrillin store energy when stretched and release it when the force is removed. These proteins differ in their degree of resiliency: elastin and resilin exhibit up to 90% resiliency, whereas silk shows partial resilience despite its high tensile strength.

• Molecular Features:
  Many elastic proteins share recurring sequences and structural motifs. For example, elastin and spider silk incorporate beta-sheet domains, along with alpha-helices and beta-turns, often featuring repetitive sequences rich in proline and alanine. In resilin, high proportions of glycine and proline contribute to its intrinsically disordered structure, allowing for rapid conformational changes and responsiveness to environmental stimuli.

Fibrous Proteins: Structure and Assembly

• Collagen:
  Collagen is the most abundant protein in mammals, forming the extracellular scaffolds of connective tissues. Its unique triple helix, created by three polypeptide chains with a repeating (Gly-X-Y) sequence (where X is frequently proline and Y often hydroxyproline), is stabilized by interchain hydrogen bonds and n→π* interactions. Post-translational modifications, such as hydroxylation (requiring vitamin C), are essential for its stability and proper function. Remarkably, collagen’s stability has enabled its preservation in the fossil record for millions of years.

• α-Keratin:
  As a key component of hair, nails, and skin, α-keratin forms robust intermediate filaments through the assembly of coiled-coil dimers and tetramers. The formation of heterodimers between type I (acidic) and type II (basic) keratins is critical for their proper assembly into strong, insoluble fibers that rely heavily on hydrophobic interactions.

• Fibrinogen:
  Fibrinogen is a large, flexible glycoprotein involved in blood clotting. Comprised of six polypeptide chains (α2β2γ2) linked by disulfide bonds, fibrinogen transforms into fibrin upon cleavage by thrombin. This conversion exposes “knobs” that interact with complementary “holes” in other fibrinogen molecules, leading to the formation of a fibrous clot network essential for hemostasis.

• Myosin Heavy Chain:
  Myosin heavy chain is a central component of muscle contraction, containing a motor domain that hydrolyzes ATP and an elongated, alpha-helical tail that forms coiled-coil structures. Myosin exists in different conformations – an extended 6S form that assembles into filaments and a compact 10S form that is inactive – illustrating how structural dynamics are critical for its function in the actin-myosin complex.

• Spider dragline silk:

This is a distinctive example of a fibrillar protein. The silk proteins (spidroins) contain alternating poly(Ala) regions and glycine-rich sequences. The poly(Ala) segments form β-sheet nanocrystals in the final fiber, while the glycine-rich regions contribute flexibility and extensibility.

Unlike many classical fibrillar proteins, spidroins are initially stored in the silk gland as highly concentrated, largely disordered proteins. During fiber formation, environmental changes such as ion exchange, pH shifts, mechanical shear, and water removal trigger hierarchical assembly. Multivalent side-chain interactions, including arginine–tyrosine cation–π contacts, promote liquid–liquid phase separation, concentrating the proteins prior to fiber formation. Subsequent alignment and dehydration allow poly(Ala) segments to form hydrogen-bonded β-sheet domains that give the silk its strength. The final fiber consists of β-sheet crystalline regions embedded in a more disordered, elastic matrix.

Thus, fibrillar proteins illustrate how repetitive primary structure leads to organized higher-order assemblies. Spider silk expands this paradigm by showing how intrinsically disordered proteins can undergo controlled phase separation and then transition to β-sheet–rich fibrils, linking weak multivalent interactions with mechanically robust materials.

Integrating Structure with Function

Throughout the chapter, the interplay between protein structure and mechanical function is emphasized. Elastic proteins exemplify how specific sequence motifs and folding patterns confer the ability to absorb and release energy efficiently. In contrast, fibrous proteins such as collagen and keratin are highlighted for their role in forming robust, load-bearing structures. Moreover, the chapter delves into the molecular basis of protein stability—such as the role of post-translational modifications and noncovalent interactions—that ensures these proteins perform reliably under varying physiological conditions.

This integrated overview not only underscores the diversity of protein structures but also connects molecular details to their broader biological roles, providing a comprehensive foundation for further studies in biochemistry and materials science.

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Comprehensive Database for Protein Analysis - Biozon

SCOP: Structural Characterization of Proteins - Database showing folds, superfamiles, families, and domains