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13.2: Monitoring Population Size

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    71513
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    The primary aim of population monitoring is to detect changes in the environment, population size, and species distribution over time. Such monitoring efforts frequently focus on a particular area or a population of concern, but it can also target more common but sensitive species, such as butterflies and macroinvertebrates, which can function as indicator species to assess ecosystem condition. The great number of methods (which are all types of surveys) used to monitor populations usually fall into one of three different categories: biodiversity inventories, population censuses, and demographic studies.

    Biodiversity inventories

    A biodiversity inventory is an attempt to document which species are present in some defined locality. Such an effort can focus on one specific taxa (e.g. a bird survey) or several taxa, on a small area (e.g. a city park) or large area (e.g. a large national park), over a short period of time (e.g. a few hours) or long period of time (e.g. several years). There are many methods to compile a biodiversity inventory, ranging from uncomplicated to highly organized, performed by a single person or a large team of experts. Some of the most popular methods for biodiversity inventories include site visits by professional naturalists and questionnaires distributed among local people. To tap into the knowledge and eagerness of amateur naturalists, conservation biologists are also increasingly compiling biodiversity inventories using citizen science surveys. Rapid biodiversity assessments (RAP) are sometimes used to compile an inventory under tight deadlines to answer urgent questions and inform urgent decisions. A bioblitz is a special type of biodiversity inventory during which experts on a range of taxa come together to record all the living species within a designated area over a brief period (usually over 24 hours).

    While biodiversity inventories seldom offer the kinds of detailed data required to predict likelihood of a species’ persistence, they have several uses in conservation. First, a biodiversity inventory can be a comparatively inexpensive and straightforward method to broadly monitor an area’s species and populations. Biodiversity inventories conducted over a wide area can also help determine the distribution of a species, while a comparison with follow-up inventories can highlight distribution changes (which often correspond to population changes).

    Population censuses

    A population census (also called a count) uses a repeatable sampling protocol to estimate the abundance or density of a population or species which, in turn, can tell us whether a population is doing well or not. When a species is easy to detect, relatively sedentary, and the sampling area is small, a comprehensive census of all individuals may be possible. However, comprehensive censuses are generally very difficult, if not impossible, to conduct when implemented on large or highly mobile populations, or over large areas. In these cases, it may be better to restrict the census to a more manageable subsection of the population, by dividing the area of interest into sampling units, and randomly censusing only some of the units. Population estimates that capture only a fraction of the overall population can then serve as an index for broader trends, or it can be used to estimate the total population size through extrapolation, if the researcher knows which fraction of the population or area was counted.

    Some popular methods for censusing subsections of wildlife populations are, sampling plots, distance sampling, and mark-recapture surveys. Sampling plots are popular in studies focusing on plants and invertebrates, allowing biologists to systematically count each individual observed in a small area. A quadrat is a square structure that is randomly located on the ground and used to count the number of individuals that lie within its boundaries. To obtain an accurate count using this method, the square must be placed at random locations within the habitat enough times to produce an accurate estimate. (Figure 13.2.1). Birds and mammals are often censused using distance sampling, during which all observed individuals on predetermined transects or from points are tallied. The number of individuals observed in the count area can then be extrapolated to obtain population size (or density) estimates for individual (or multiple) species observed across the entire area of interest. Aerial censuses are often used to conduct distance sampling transects over large and open areas, while point counts and walked line-transects are more popular for small areas or closed-canopy ecosystems (White and Edward, 2000).

    Fig_9.2b.png
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    Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): (Top) A schematic of a systematic sampling protocol using quadrat frames. Dividing a large area into smaller sampling units makes the survey task much more feasible. The survey can be performed in the field, or photos such as these can be taken for analysis once back at the office. CC BY 4.0. (Bottom) A quadrat frame divided into 10x10 cm squares, set out to monitor the species richness and abundance of plants in a grassland recovering from a fire. Photograph by Yohan Euan, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:quadrat_sample.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0.
    Box 13.2 Sea Turtle Conservation along Africa’s Atlantic Coast

    Angela Formia

    Wildlife Conservation Society,

    Global Conservation Program,

    New York, NY, USA.

    aformia@wcs.org

    Virtually all the characteristics of sea turtles’ life histories make them difficult to study and conserve. They are long-lived, slow growing, migratory, and almost entirely ocean-dwelling. Although they return to their natal beaches to reproduce, these are usually thousands of kilometers from their developmental and adult foraging grounds. In addition, sea turtle habitat often overlaps with areas of high human use such as developed coastlines and intensive fisheries. Describing population ranges and assessing interaction with human threats is thus critical to their survival.

    Over recent decades, we have learnt much about sea turtles along the coastline of Africa (Figure 13.2.1) thanks to extensive research efforts. For instance, we know that these coasts host globally important populations of green turtles (Chelonia mydas, EN) in Mauritania, Guinea Bissau, Equatorial Guinea and Republic of the Congo; loggerheads (Caretta caretta, VU) on Cabo Verde; hawksbills (Eretmochelys imbricata, CR), on São Tomé and Principe; leatherbacks (Dermochelys coriacea, VU) in Equatorial Guinea and Gabon; and olive ridleys (Lepidochelys olivacea, VU) in Gabon and Angola.

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    Figure 13.2.2 (Top) One of thousands of leatherback sea turtle females nesting in Gabon every year. Photograph by M.J. Witt, CC BY 4.0. (Bottom) An olive ridley turtle hatchling makes its way to sea on a northern Angolan beach where the local community ensures its protection. Photograph by A. Formia, CC BY 4.0.

    One of Africa’s most remarkable sea turtle populations is Gabon’s leatherback rookery, the biggest in the world with as many as 15,000 to 41,000 nesting females (Witt et al., 2009). Gabon also hosts the largest olive ridley rookery in the Atlantic (Metcalfe et al., 2015), and foraging grounds for green and hawksbill turtles. Until the late 1990s, virtually nothing was known about these populations, other than the fact that eggs and adults were frequently collected for human consumption. Since then, a multi-pronged approach has been adopted to describe and protect Gabon’s sea turtles. Intensive coastal monitoring has allowed scientists to assess spatio-temporal trends in nesting frequency and abundance, and levels of nest-site fidelity and reproductive success. Using techniques, such as satellite telemetry, flipper tagging, oceanic modelling, and dispersal simulations, and genetic and isotopic analyses, researchers have been able to map sea turtle behavior at sea, in Gabon’s coastal waters, and during post-nesting migrations to foraging grounds off South America and South Africa (i.e. Formia et al., 2006, Maxwell et al., 2011, Witt et al., 2011, Pikesley et al., 2018).

    Building upon this knowledge, measures have been established to quantify and reduce the impact of threats to Gabon’s sea turtles. In 2002, the Gabonese government created a system of national parks and protected areas encompassing approximately 80% of Gabon’s sea turtle nests; in 2017, a new network of 20 marine protected areas (MPA) was officially created, covering 26% of Gabon’s territorial waters (Parker, 2017). Laws enacted in 2011 prohibit all hunting, capture, and commercialisation of sea turtles. Trained observers on-board industrial fishing vessels quantify sea turtle bycatch from bottom trawling and tuna seiners and reduce mortality by treating and releasing captured turtles. In addition, the Gabonese government now requires that all shrimp trawlers use turtle excluder devices (TED), aluminium grids sewn into the nets allowing sea turtles and other large bycatch to escape, while conserving shrimp catch; similar devices are being developed for fish trawlers. Ongoing efforts are shifting traditional turtle hunting and other destructive practices toward more sustainable fisheries. Turtle-watching ecotourism also represents a growing potential to increase awareness and incentivize conservation efforts.

    Nevertheless, African sea turtle conservation remains a formidable challenge. Although the economic context is changing rapidly, impoverished coastal villagers in many countries continue to collect turtles and eggs for local consumption or market sale, and many wealthier urbanites continue to consider them delicacies. These problems are often compounded by corruption, political instability, inadequate law enforcement, and development priorities focused on destructive exploitation. With funding deficits, combating these challenges sometimes seems like a losing battle, but public attitudes are slowly shifting. Even in remote beach villages, the idea that a turtle alive is worth more than dead is no longer such a bizarre concept.

    Mark-recapture surveys, mark-resight surveys, and sight-resight surveys are popular for species that are easy to catch, trap, or individually recognized. In this case, captured (and thus counted) individuals would be marked for future identification, after which the total population in an area is estimated by accounting for the proportion of marked and unmarked individuals seen on subsequent visits. The marking of animals can be done with a variety of procedures, including using highly visible tags, paint approved for animal use, or unique marks on the animal itself. This method involves marking captured animals in and releasing them back into the environment to mix with the rest of the population. Later, a new sample is captured and scientists determine how many of the marked animals are in the new sample. This method assumes that the larger the population, the lower the percentage of marked organisms that will be recaptured since they will have mixed with more unmarked individuals. For example, if 80 field mice are captured, marked, and released into the forest, then a second trapping 100 field mice are captured and 20 of them are marked, the population size (N) can be determined using the equation in the worksheet below (Figure 13.2.3)

    Using our example, the equation would be:

    (80 × 100)
    20 = 400

    These results give us an estimate of 400 total individuals in the original population. The true number usually will be a bit different from this because of chance errors and possible bias caused by the sampling methods.

    Demographic studies

    Demographic studies monitor individuals of different ages and sizes over time (Figure 13.2.3) to obtain a more comprehensive dataset than would be produced by population censuses. Most demographic studies use the same methods that what would be used for a population census; however, in addition to counting and marking, individuals would also be aged, measured for size and body condition, and sexed, when possible. The best demographic studies involve collecting these data from the same individuals over time, which is easiest when working with sedentary species (e.g. plants), populations in an enclosed space (e.g. in a small fenced reserve), animals that are fairly resident and/or habituated to human presence, or individuals carrying biologging devices (Kays et al., 2015). This may not always be possible, in which case biologists may obtain data from different individuals during each field session, to serve as an index for larger population trends.

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    Figure 13.2.3 A biologist gathering biometric data from a juvenile central African slender-snouted crocodile (Mecistops leptorhynchus, CR) in the DRC. The crocodile will be tagged with a permanent marker before release so it can be recognized when caught again. Accompanying the photo is an example of mark-recapture survey worksheet to estimate population size. Photograph by Terese Hart, CC BY 4.0.

    The data obtained from demographic studies are often used in combination with mathematical modeling to guide and refine conservation strategies. For example, researchers frequently compare the age structure (i.e. the percentage of juveniles, reproductively active adults, and older post-reproductive-age adults) of a declining population to that of a stable population to identify causes of decline, and the population parameters that are most sensitive to disturbances. This information can then be used to predict population sizes at different points in the future, and how those populations may respond to different management scenarios. The aim of many demographic studies is to predict, and identify strategies to reduce, extinction risk.

    Recent progress in collecting survey data

    Camera traps, hair snares, and fecal samples all provide non-invasive sampling techniques to obtain baseline data needed for conservation assessments.

    Collecting genetic material on elusive and rarely-seen animals with non-invasive techniques such as hair snares and fecal sampling are also becoming increasingly popular means of collecting survey data. These non-invasive techniques reduce the need for researchers to be in the field, thereby reducing both the researchers’ exposure to dangerous conditions and disturbances to the populations they are trying to monitor.

    Camera traps represent another non-invasive survey technique whose popularity has greatly increased in recent years. These special cameras, often placed at supplemental food or next to wildlife paths, are activated automatically when an animal passes into the area covered by the camera’s motion sensors (Figure 13.2.4). This photographic record of movement can then be used to obtain biodiversity inventories, population size estimations, or even to compile demographic datasets (Steenweg et al., 2017).

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    Figure 13.2.4 (Left) A nature conservation student sets a camera trap in northern South Africa to monitor leopard (Panthera pardus, VU) and brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea, NT) populations on a privately protected area. Photograph by Kelly Marnewick, CC BY 4.0. (Right) Congo peafowl (Afropavo congensis, VU)—a highly elusive species—investigating a camera trap in the DRC. Photograph by Lukuru Foundation, CC BY 4.0.

    This page titled 13.2: Monitoring Population Size is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by John W. Wilson & Richard B. Primack (Open Book Publishers) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.