Skip to main content
Biology LibreTexts

19.4: Waste Reduction

  • Page ID
    35009
  • \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    ( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

    \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

    \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

    \(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)

    The waste management hierarchy lists processes to address waste in order of preference with the goals of limiting waste, minimizing environmental impact, and maximizing additional benefits (such as electricity generation or production of recycled goods). It is symbolized as an upside triangle, meaning that the largest volume of waste should be handled using the first process (most preferred), and the smallest volume should be handled using the last process (least preferred). These processes in order of preference are reduction, recycling, energy recovery (such as incineration), treatment, and disposal (figure \(\PageIndex{a}\)). Individuals can exercise the first two processes by applying the four R's (see below). Unfortunately, the U.S. and the world overall, handles a large volume of waste using the least preferred method (disposal). As previously mentioned, about half of municipal solid waste (MSW) goes to a sanitary landfill for disposal. In contrast, only 23.5% of municipal solid waste (MSW) was recovered and recycled and another 8.5% was composted in 2018. Waste stream percentages also vary widely by region. As an example, San Francisco, California recycles or composts 80% of its waste material, whereas Houston, Texas recycles or composts only 19%.

    The waste management hierarchy is an upside-down triangle.The food recovery is an upside-down triangle that resembles the waste management hierarchy.

     

    Figure \(\PageIndex{a}\): Left: The waste management hierarchy lists processes for handling waste from most to least preferable. They are source reduction, recycling, energy recovery, treatment, and disposal or other releases. Right: The food recovery hierarchy is a waste management hierarchy specific to food waste. It begins with source reduction (reduce the volume of surplus food generated). Next is feed hungry people (donate extra food to food banks, soup kitchens, and shelters. Third is feed animals (divert food scraps to animal food. Fourth is industrial uses (provide waste oils for rendering and fuel conversion and food scraps for digestion to recover energy. Fifth is composting (create a nutrient-rich soil amendment). The remaining waste goes to landfill or incineration as a last resort to disposal. Images by EPA (public domain).

    Source reduction (waste minimization) refers to the strategies that minimize the amount of generated waste and/or reduce the toxicity of the resultant waste when designing or manufacturing products or services. Waste can be reduced by reusing materials, using less hazardous substitute materials, or by modifying components of design and processing. Source reduction in manufacturing not only saves resources, but it also reduces costs for the manufacturer and indirectly for the consumer. For example, minimal packaging reduces material use, increases distribution efficiency, and reduces fuel consumption and resulting air emissions. Similarly, building materials can be designed to reduce the overall mass of material needed for a given structure. 

    Recycling refers to recovery and reprocessing of useful materials. Numerous examples of successful recycling and reuse efforts are encountered every day. Many construction materials can be reused, including concrete, asphalt materials, masonry, and reinforcing steel. "Green" plant-based wastes are often recovered and immediately reused for mulch or fertilizer applications. Many industries also recover various byproducts for reuse. In some cases, the recycled materials are used as input materials and are heavily processed into end products. Common examples include the use of scrap paper for new paper manufacturing, or the processing of old aluminum cans into new aluminum products. In other cases, reclaimed materials undergo little or no processing prior to their reuse. Some common examples include the use of tree waste as wood chips, or the use of brick and other fixtures into new structural construction. In any case, the success of recycling depends on effective collection and processing of recyclables, markets for reuse, and public acceptance and promotion of recycled products and applications utilizing recycled materials.

    The Four R's

    The four R's (refuse, reduce, reuse, and recycle) are strategies that allow individuals to limit the volume and negative impacts of the waste they generate. They resemble the waste management hierarchy, but focus at the individual scale rather than the scale of a company or waste management system. They are listed in order of most to least environmentally beneficial, and they are all better alternatives than discarding trash into the landfill. Recycling is last because it requires energy to reprocess waste.

    To refuse is to decline products or processes that harm the environment if you do not need them. Choosing products without packaging is an example of refusing. To reduce is to choose products or processes with lower ecological footprint (the area of land required to produce them). Examples include products with limited packaging or durable items rather than flimsy or disposable ones. Reuse refers to using a product multiple times or finding an alternative use for it. For example, one could share, borrow, or rent items. A plastic yogurt or pudding container could be repurposed for storage or gardening. As noted above, recycling means to return used items to be reprocessed (figure \(\PageIndex{b}\)). Commonly recycled materials include cardboard, glass, cans, and certain plastics.

    A compost, recycling, and trash bin

     

    Figure \(\PageIndex{b}\): Recycling, or returning materials to be reprocessed, is the last of the four R's. If items cannot be refused, reduced, or reused, recycling is a better alternative than discarding into the landfill. Image by Intel Free Press (CC-BY).

    Resin identification codes are the triangular symbols on recyclable plastics that indicate their composition (figure \(\PageIndex{c}\)). A variety of materials make up plastics, and they are not all recycled the same way. Furthermore, your local recycling service may recycle some types of plastics but not others. Plastics with codes 1 and 2 are commonly recycled. For the codes, check with your local recycling service. Local businesses may house collection bins for plastics that are not commonly recycled. For example, grocery stores commonly have receptacles for recycling plastic bags, which fall under code 4.

    Resin identification codes are numbers 1-2 in triangular recycling symbols
    Figure \(\PageIndex{c}\)): The resin identification coding system explains the chemical composition of various plastics. Some are commonly recycled, and others are not. The text in the image is, "1: PET Polyethylene terephthalate, 2: HDPE High-density polyethylene, 3: PVC Polyvinyl chloride, 4: LDPE Low-density polyethylene, 5: PP Polypropylene, 6: PS Polystyrene, 7: OTHER Other plastics, including acrylic, acrylonitrille butadiene styrene, fiberglass, nylon, polycarbonate and polylactic acid. Image by Filtre/OpenClipart Library (public domain).

    Interactive Element

    Which items can be recycled is based on where you live and the waste management service available there. The Environmental Protection Agency provides general recycling guidelines. You local waste collector may provide an interactive website to help you determine which items to recycle. For example Recology, which serves Northern California, has a searchable website called What Bin.

    Composting

    Compost is organic material that can be added to soil to help plants grow (figure \(\PageIndex{d}\)). Food scraps and yard waste together currently make up more than 30% of what we throw away and could be composted instead. Making compost keeps these materials out of landfills where they take up space and release methane, a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change. Furthermore, compost enriches soil, helping retain moisture and suppress plant diseases and pests. It reduces the need for chemical fertilizers and encourages the production of beneficial bacteria and fungi. Composting can be done at an industrial scale, such as with yard waste collected from homes in a city. It can also be done at home.

    Two hands cupped together hold a pile of compost and a small plant
    Figure \(\PageIndex{d}\)): Compost is a nutrient-rich substance formed from decomposition of yard and food waste that enriches garden soil. Image by EPA (public domain).

    All composting requires three basic ingredients: browns, greens, and water. "Browns" are materials such as dead leaves, branches, and twigs. "Greens" are materials such as grass clippings, vegetable waste, fruit scraps, and coffee grounds. The brown materials provide carbon for your compost, the green materials provide nitrogen, and the water provides moisture to help break down the organic matter. A compost pile should have an equal amount of browns to greens. Layers of these organic materials with different particle sizes should be alternated.

    Backyard Composting

    Backyard composting requires a compost bin or pile to be placed in dry, shady spot near a water source (figure \(\PageIndex{e}\)). Brown and green materials are added as they are collected, and larger pieces are chopped or shredded before they are added to the pile. Dry materials are moistened as they are added. Once the compost pile is established, grass clippings and green waste are mixed into the pile when added. When fruit and vegetable wastes are added, they are buried under 10 inches of compost material. Some homeowners cover the top of the compost with a tarp to keep it moist. When the material at the bottom is dark and rich in color, the compost is ready to use. This usually takes anywhere between two months to two years.

    A wood container with food waste and dead grass in it.
    Figure \(\PageIndex{e}\)): This compost bin contains food scraps and yard waste. Image by Ben_Kerckx/Pixabay (Pixabay license)

    Indoor Composting

    For those who do not have the space for an outdoor compost pile, materials can be composted indoors using a special type of bin, which can be purchased at a local hardware store, gardening supplies store, or made at home. Care must be taken to properly manage the compost pile and keep track of what is added such that it does not attract pests or rodents or smell bad. The compost should be ready in two to five weeks.

    Interactive Element

    Not all food scraps can go into compost. If you want to start a compost pile and are not sure which food scraps are suitable, see the lists on the Environmental Protection Agency website.

    Attribution

    Modified by Melissa Ha from the following sources:


    This page titled 19.4: Waste Reduction is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Melissa Ha and Rachel Schleiger (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative) .

    • Was this article helpful?